Методичка для социологов

Task 1. Transcribe the words and learn their pronunciation:

category, characteristic, contrasting, course, illuminate, modify, observation, policy, static, suicide, systematic, theoretical, theory

Task 2. Answer the following questions:

1.What is meant by theory?

2.What did Durkheim base his research on?

3.What is the essence of his suicide theory?

4.What sociological observation was made among college science students?

5.What did sociologists make use of to evaluate contrasting theories?

6.Is theory static or changeable within any discipline?

7.Who are more prone to science study according to the sociological observation in the United States? Do you agree with this point of view?

Task 3. Find in the text English equivalents for:

точка зрения; бесчисленный; набор фактов; а именно; более склонны; одновременно; любой частный вопрос; следовательно; для того, чтобы; извлекать пользу; подтверждать теории; внутри; последующие десятилетия; характерные модели человеческого поведения; резко выраженная безличность; проводить исследование

Task 4. Find in the text antonyms for:

indefinite, unfamiliar, meaningless, complex, to forget, similar, to be unable, repulsive, learned, to discourage, wrong, to accept a theory, late, slow, personality, to start

Task 5. Divide the text into logical parts and make up a plan of the text.

Task 6. Speak on the text.

Task 7. Translate the text in writing:

The gradual development of scientific thought in Europe was one important foundation of sociology. But something more was involved: revolutionary change in European society itself. The increasing importance of science is but one dimension of the modernization of Europe. Social change, of course, is continuous but European societies experienced particularly rapid transformations during the 17th and 18th centuries. In the midst of intense social change that reached crisis proportions, people

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were less likely to take society for granted. Indeed, as the social ground shook under their feet, they focused more and more on society, which stimulated the emergence of the sociological perspective.

Three dimensions of social change occurred in that era, each truly revolutionary in its own right. First, various technological innovations in eighteenth-century Europe led to the appearance of factories, initially in England. This new way of producing material goods soon gave rise to an industrial economy. Second, factories located within cities drew millions of people from the countryside, where agriculture had been traditional livelihood. As a result, the growth of industry was accompanied by the explosive growth of cities. Third, the development of the economy and the growth of cities were linked to changes in political ideas.

Task 8. Fill in the blanks with the following words in the necessary forms and translate the sentences into Russian:

to be influenced by, to encourage, to be interested in, to be concerned with, to make use of, to give rise to, to be prone to, to carry out research

1.People … greatly … … society since the beginning of human history.

2.Systematic studies of the society carried out by the social thinkers … … …

appearing a new science – sociology.

3.They are planning … … … … on the basis of a new scientific approach.

4.The scholars … primarily … … the investigation of the sociological perspective.

5.Early sociologists … strongly … … Comte’s ideas.

6.The scholars … constant … … his ways of interpreting and analyzing new phenomena.

7.They always … scientific methods of investigation in any particular observation.

8.He … … … take part in the discussion concerning the operation of social laws within the society.

Task 9. Read and translate the following sentences taking into account different meanings of the word ‘experience’:

1.He experienced great hardships in the life, but in spite of that he continued his work in the field of sociological research.

2.They considered him to be a very experienced scholar as far as the sociological perspective was concerned.

3.His experience was great and he readily encouraged such innovative strivings.

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4.They experienced true feelings of friendship to each other and this devotion lasted all their life.

5.The situation was out of being ordinary and he understood her experiences quite well.

6.Recent decades of our century experienced tremendous transformations in all spheres of the life.

7.He described the situation in such a way as if he had experienced it himself.

8.His experience in this field was quite evident and nobody doubted it.

Task 10. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:

be prone to	issue (n., v.)
confirm	level
develop a theory	link (n., v.)
discourage	make use of
distinctive	point of view
encourage	refine
evaluate	reject
experience (n., v.)	relationship
familiar	simultaneously
involve	through comparisons

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UNIT 4. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Four research methods are widely employed in sociological investigation. A method is a strategy for carrying out research in a systematic way – comparable to a blueprint used in building or a recipe in cooking. The four methods discussed here are all expressions of the logic science. They differ, however, in the specific ways in which observations are made and in the kinds of questions they help us answer. No method is in an absolute sense better or worse than any other; each has characteristic strengths and weaknesses so that any method is particularly suited for certain kinds of research.

Experiments

The logic of science is clearly expressed in the experiment – a method that seeks to specify a cause-and-effect relationship among variables. Experimental research, in other words, is explanatory in character, attempting to show what factors in the social world cause change to occur in other factors. Experiments are typically based on the text of a specific hypothesis – a theoretical statement of a relationship between independent and dependent variables. The goal of an experiment is to find out whether or not the hypothesis is supported by empirical evidence. Thus, an experiment involves three steps: (1) the dependent variable is measured; (2) the dependent variable is exposed to the effects of the independent variables; (3) the dependent variable is measured again to see what (if any) change has taken place.

Survey Research

A survey is a method of contacting individuals in order to obtain responses to a series of items or questions. It is the most widely used of all research methods in sociology. Surveys are particularly useful when we are seeking answers to specific questions, especially when what we want to know cannot be observed directly, such as the political preferences and religious beliefs of individuals, patterns of sexual attraction, or the private lives of married couples. Because surveys typically involve the number of different variables, they (like experiments) are appropriate for conducting explanatory research, in which we attempt to specify the relations among several variables, seeking correlations or even causal links among them. Surveys are also commonly used in descriptive research, in which a sociologist attempts to describe some category of people with regard to one or more variables of interest.

Questionnaires

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A questionnaire is a series of questions or items to which all subjects are asked to respond. In most cases, the respondent is provided with possible responses to each item, so that the process of answering only involves selecting the best response. Analyzing the results of the survey is easy because the possible responses have been limited by the researcher. A questionnaire that provides a set of responses to the subject has a closed-ended format.

In some cases, however, a researcher might want to let a subject respond in an entirely free way. In an open-ended format the subjects are able to express their responses however they wish, which allows subtle shades of opinion to come through. Of course, the researcher later has to make sense out of what can be a bewildering array of answers.

How to present the questions to subjects is a major decision for every study that uses a questionnaire. Most often, a questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are asked to complete the form and then return it to the researcher, usually also by mail. This technique is called a self-administered survey. When subjects respond to such questionnaires, no researcher is present, of course. In self-administered surveys, it is especially important to pretest the questionnaire with a small group of people before sending it to all subjects in the study. It can help prevent the costly problem of finding out too late – that instructions or questions were not clear to respondents.

Interviews

Researchers may also use the interview (sometimes called an interview-survey), which is a questionnaire, administered personally to the subject by the researcher. Interviews are especially useful if the items have an open-ended format because the researcher can ask follow-up questions, both to probe a bit more deeply and to clarify the subject’s responses. The researcher must be careful not to influence these responses, however. Sometimes even raising an eyebrow as someone begins to answer a question can be enough to change a response. The advantage of an interview is that a subject is more likely to complete a questionnaire in the presence of a researcher. One disadvantage is that tracking people down is often a difficult job, and more than one attempt may be necessary. Another is that if all subjects do not live in the same area, the costs of conducting research in this way can become extremely high.

Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:

strategy, logic, specific, absolute, typically, hypothesis, series, preference, private, category, analyzing, technique

Task 2. Answer the following questions:

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1.What is defined by a method?

2.What kind of method is an experiment?

3.What are experiments based on?

4.How would you define a hypothesis?

5.What is the goal of an experiment?

6.What steps does the experiment involve?

7.Where is it better to conduct an experiment?

8.In what way would you characterize a survey?

9.What research may be conducted by means of a survey?

10.What is a questionnaire?

11.What kinds of questionnaires may there be?

12.What is the difference between these two types?

13.What is meant by a self-administered survey?

14.What is an interview?

15.What are the advantages and disadvantages of an interview?

16.Enumerate all methods of sociological research. Which of them do you consider to be the most productive? Give your reasons.

Task 3. Characterize each method of sociological research.

Task 4. Make up a questionnaire on the topic “Who is the leading personality in the country?”

Task 5. Develop the following situations:

1.You are asked to carry out a public opinion poll. What would you start with?

2.What would you recommend to the beginners in carrying out an interview?

Task 6. Find in the text English equivalents for:

проводить исследования; в абсолютном смысле; лучше или хуже; сильные стороны и слабые; переменная; с учетом; испытуемые; во многих случаях; набор ответов; совершенно свободно; ставящий в тупик; по почте; слишком поздно; преимущество; недостаток

Task 7. Arrange the following words into pairs of synonyms:

1.	research	a) to carry out
2.	method	b)especially
3.	to conduct	c) typically
4.	to vary	d) to select
5.	definite	e) technique
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6.	particularly	f) certain
7.	cause	g) to take place
8.	to occur	h) effect
9.	generally	i) to appear
10. aim		j) investigation
11.result		k) to differ
12.to choose		l) reason
13. important		m) goal
14. to emerge		n) significant

Task 8. Translate the following sentences into Russian taking into account the meanings of: in relation to; with regard to; with respect to

1.He treated this phenomenon in relation to the extreme environmental conditions.

2.They decided to change the experimental procedure with regard to the new circumstances.

3.They examined the given problem with respect to a new approach.

4.He didn’t know anything at all in relation to her point of view.

5.He was very attentive with regard to her position.

6.With respect to his theory of cognition the issue was of certain interest.

7.He was quite right in relation to his treatment of their method of inquiry.

8.They investigated human attitudes with regard to nonverbal communication.

9.The problem arose only with respect to his way of observation.

10.She made an interesting report in relation to the new data.

Task 9. Memorize the following words and word-combinations:

appropriate (adj.,v.)	explanatory research
by mail	influence (n.,v.)
cause-and-effect relations	investigation
causal links	measure (n., v.)
clarify	occur
closed/open-ended format	self-administered survey
descriptive research	specify
(dis)advantage	suit (v.)
empirical evidence	variable
employ	with regard to

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UNIT 5. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND INDIVIDUALITY

Because society is an organized system, it is not surprising that social interaction is patterned. Society is, after all, built on countless interactions among individual human beings, and human beings have the capacity to act with almost infinite variety. In the absence of social patterns, people would indeed find social life confusing. Culture provides guidelines for human behavior in the form of values and norms.

The assertion that human behavior is socially patterned often provokes some initial resistance. Few human beings readily admit to being part of any kind of system, especially those who live in a culture that prizes individual autonomy. Americans, for instance, tend to emphasize individual responsibility for behavior and highlight the unique elements of their personalities. Behaving in patterned ways, however, does not threaten our individuality. On the contrary, individuality is encouraged by social structure.

First, and more generally, our humanity involves much more than physical existence. The great potential of human beings develops only thorough interaction with others. Within social life, distinct personalities emerge as people blend their unique qualities with the values and norms of the large culture from freely expressing ourselves. The social world can be disorienting, even frightening, to people who do not know the behavior guidelines. Without this knowledge, people feel too uncomfortable to express their unique personalities with confidence.

To illustrate, you may recall going alone to a party given by people you did not know well. Entering such a setting – and not knowing quite what to expect – is likely to cause some anxiety. At such times you generally feel self-conscious, try to make a favorable impression, and look to others for clues about what sort of behavior is expected of you. Once you understand the behavioral standards that apply to the setting, you are likely to feel comfortable enough to “act like yourself”.

Of course, social structure also places some constraints on human behavior. By guiding behavior within culturally approved bounds, established social patterns discourage behavior that is culturally defined as unconventional. Traditional values and norms in the United States and Canada, for example, still reflect the expectation that males will be “masculine” (physically strong, self-assertive, and rational) and the females will be “feminine” (physically weak, self-effacing, and emotional). The structure of society exerts pressure on individuals to fit into one or the other of these categories, ignoring the fact that most people have both “masculine” and “feminine” qualities. In this and many other ways, social structure can limit any individual’s

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freedom to think and act in ways that may be personally preferred. In addition, the failure to conform the established social patterns may lead to being defined by others as deviant.

Task 1. Transcribe the following words and learn their pronunciation:

Autonomy, category, comfortable, deviant, disorienting, individuality, rational, structure, unique

Task 2. Answer the following questions:

1.Why do we say that social interaction is patterned?

2.What does culture provide?

3.So, according to what is our behavior patterned?

4.What may this assertion provoke/

5.Through what does the potential of human beings develop?

6.In what cases do people feel uncomfortable?

7.What do you feel in an unfamiliar situation?

8.What does social structure place on human behavior?

9.What is understood by unconventional behavior?

10.What pressure does the structure of society exert on individuals? 11.What can social structure limit?

Task 3. State the general idea of each paragraph of the text.

Task 4. Express your opinion of the text. Use the following words for the characteristic:

importantinconclusive essential – trivial well-presented – muddle interesting – dull

valid – inaccurate , wrong

Task 5. Summarize the text in 10 sentences.

Task 6. Translate the text in writing:

1.Sociology is more than a perspective; it is also a form of investigation that uses the logic of science to learn about the social world.

2.There are three basic requirements of sociological investigation: (1) being aware of the larger social world; (2) using the sociological perspective; and (3) being curious and asking questions about society.

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3.The logic of science makes use of concepts and variables. Concepts are abstract ideas that represent elements of society. Concepts that vary in value are called variables. Measurement is the process of determining the value of a variable in any specific case. Sound measurement has the qualities of reliability and validity.

4.The logic of science demands objectivity on the part of a researcher. While issues chosen for investigation may reflect personal interests, personal values and biases must be suspended in conducting the research.

5.The logic of science was developed primarily through studying the natural world. Although science can be used to study social behavior, it has important limitations for doing so.

6.Curiosity and imagination, necessary for all successful research, spring from the human mind and not from the logic of science. Moreover, all human reality is based on patterns of meaning. The process of interpretation is therefore part of all sociological investigation.

Task 7. Find in the text “Social Structure and Individuality” English equivalents for:

бесчисленные взаимодействия; запутанный; с готовностью; например; напротив; сбивающий с толку; уверенно; окружение (среда); вызывать беспокойство; произвести благоприятное впечатление; принятые культурные рамки; мужские качества; женские качества; ограничить свободу; оказывать давление; кроме того

Task 8. Arrange the following words into groups of antonyms:

1.	disorganized	a) limited
2.	chaos	b) familiar
3.	infinite	c) quietly
4.	in the presence	d) difference
5.	lose	e) emerge
6.	unfamiliar	f) organized
7.	leave	g) in the absence
8.	finish	h) enter
9.	noisily	i) arrival
10. departure		j) in other words
11. ordinary		k) uncomfortable
12. similarity		l) system
13. in the same way		m) find
14. seldom		n)begin
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