Соколова - теоретическая фонетика англ

[I), [I(a)];

[3:], [a], [3(U)], [a(u)J, [a(I)]; [n], [;:,:J, [u:J, [a:], [;:,(r)];

[u], [u(a)].

[i:], [e],

[~], [£(a)];

40	Chapter 1. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds

commonest vowel system adds two other vowels to the minimum triangle to give a five vowel system ofthe type:

As regards the English language it would be fair to mention that due to various reasons it has developed a vocalic system of a much larger number ofphonemes.

The quality of a vowel is known to be detennined by the size, volume and the shape ofthe mouth resonator which are modified by the movement ofac­ tive speech organs, i. e. the tongue and the lips. Besides, the particular quality of a vowel can depend on a lot of other factors (articulatory characteristics) such as the relative stability of the tongue, the position of the lips, physical duration of the segment, the force of articulation, the degree of tenseness of speech organs. So vowel quality could be thOUght of as a bundle definite articulatory characteristics which are sometimes interconnected and interde­ pendent: the back position of the tongue makes it rise higher in the mouth cavity, the lengthening of a vowel makes the organs of speech tenser at the moment of production and so on. So the isolation and distinction of the above-mentioned articulatory features are made for the sake of analysis with the purpose ofdescribing the vocalic system ofthe English language.

The analysis ofthe articulatory constituents ofthe quality of vowels al­ lowed phoneticians to suggest the criteria for classificatory description. They are:

a)stability of articulation

b)tongue position

c)lip position

d)character ofthe vowel end

e)length

1)tenseness

In the part that follows each of the above-mentioned factors will be considered from phonological point ofview.

Stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process ofthe articulation ofa vowel.

There are two possible varieties: a) the tongue position is stable; b) it changes, that is the tongue moves from one position to another. In the first case the articulated vowel is relatively pure, in the second case the vowel

.5. The System of English Phonemes	41

(:onsists of two clearly perceptible elements. There exists a third variety; an intennediate case, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak. So

according to the principle ofstability of articulation the English vowels are divided

monophthongs;

b)diphthongs;

c)diphthongoids.

point ofview is not shared by British phoneticians. A. Gimson, for example, doesn't distinguish between monophthongs and diphthongoids, considering the latter to be pure vowels.

English diphthongs are monophonemic units, while Russian combina­ tions of sounds are byphonemic clusters, like in: IOZ, pau, 6ya/lb and so on. Both elements in the clusters are equally energetic and distinct. So special attention should be given to the pronunciation ofEnglish diphthongs which consist oftwo elements, the first ofwhich is strong and distinct and the sec­ ond, the glide, is very weak and indistinct.

The position ofthe tongue, another principle for consideration, is char­ acterized from two aspects: horizontal and vertical movement.

According to the horizontal movement five classes ofvowels are distin­ guished:

1) front:

2) front retracted:

3) central:

. back:

5) back adVanced:

According to the vertical movement three classes of vowels are distin­ guished, each ofwhich is realized in one ofthe two variants, broad or narrow:

I) close	a) narrow:
	b) broad:	[1],	[u], [r(a)],
2) mid	a) narrow:	[eJ;	[3:],	[3(U)];
	b) broad:	[a],
3) open	a) narrow:		[;:,:],	[;:'(1)];
	b) broad:	[~], [a(r)],		[n], [a:].

The phonological relevance of this articulatory characteristic can be easily discovered in the following oppositions:

[pen	p~n] pen		pan	[k~p -	ku:p] cap -		carp
	pm]	pen	pin	[k~p - kAp]		cap -	cup
-	bi:n]	bin -	been	[bAn -	ba:nJ	bun -	barn

Chapter 1. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds

42

Lip rounding is another articulatory feature which is included into the principles of classification of English vowels. Traditionally three lip posi­ tions are distinguished: spread, neutral and rounded. For the purpose of classification it is sufficient to distinguish between two lip positions: round­ ed and unrounded or neutral. In English lip rounding is not relevant phono­ logically since no two words can be differentiated on its basis. Lip rounding takes place rather due to psychological reasons than to any other. The fact is that any vowel in English is produced with rounded lips, the degree of rounding is different and depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue. So lip rounding is a phoneme constitutive indispensable feature be­

cause no back vowel can exist without it.

Another property of English vowel sounds is traditionally termed check­ ness. This quality depends on the character of transition from a vowel to a, consonant. This kind of transition is very close in English unlike Russian. As a result all English short vowels are checked when stressed. The degree of checkness may vary and depends on the following consonants. Before voiceless consonant it is more perceptible than before a lenis voiced conso­

nant or sonorant. All long vowels are free.

It is important to know that though this characteristic has no phono­ logical value it is of primary importance for Russian learners of English. It should be remembered that since all Russian vowels are free, special atten­ tion should be given to making English short vowels checked. It is not the length of vowels that should be the point of attention but the character of the transition ofa vowel into a consonant. Such words as body, seven, better, matter should be divided into syllables in such a way so that the vowels should remain checked unlike Russian EOPIl, Ce6a, Puma, MIlma.

Length or quantity of vowels is another articulatory characteristic that

should be considered from phonological point of view.

The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into two classes according to their length:

a)short vowels: [I], [e], [;:e], [u], [A], [a], [n];

b)long vowels: [i:], [a:], [;):], [3:], [u:].

It is commonknowledge that a vowel like any sound has physical duration ­ time which is required for its production. When sounds are used is connected speech they are influenced by one another. Duration is one ofthe characteristics ofa vowel which is modified by and depends on the following factors:

1)its own length;

2)the accent ofthe :'Vlli::lUlv

3)phonetic context;

I's. The System of English Phonemes

43

4)the position of the sound in a syllable;

5)the position in a rhythmic group;

6)the position in a tone group;

7)the position in a phrase;

8)the position in the utterance;

9)the tempo ofthe whole utterance; 10) the type ofpronunciation;

11) the style of pronunciation.

The question is whether vowel length can be treated as a relevant feature

of the English vowel system.

The theoretical conclusion here is based on two laws characterizing any system.

l. A relevant feature must characterize a number of units. Let us con­ sider palatalization in Russian. Compare: ell - eJlb, pao PIlO, Hoe - H06b so on. Those oppositions form a correlation system. Any correlation have a number of oppositions. A sign of correlation is a distinctive rcature ofa number ofphonemes. The analysis of English vowels shows that Lhey can hardly form quantitative correlation. The correlations that are of­

len brought about are as follows:

[I][i:]

[u][u:]

[A][a:]

Let us analyze each of these pairs.

In actual speech the sounds [i:] and [u:] are normally realized in RP as diphthongized vowels. So [1] and [u] are opposed to diphthongoids but not to long monophthongs.

The opposition [3:1- [a] is a fairly specific one because the [a] phoneme never occurs in a stressed syllable and forms the core ofunstressed vocalism in English. The phoneme [3:] seldom occurs in an unstressed position.

The opposition [a:] - [A] is arbitrary. As a result there is only one pair of opposed phonemes remaining, [;):] [n]. That means that quantitative cor­ relation exists only in one position, so on this ground it cannot be treated as a phonologically relevant feature.

2. A feature can be systemic ifit does not depend on the context. As to the absolute length ofEnglish historically long and historically short vowels it var­ ies and depends on a lot offactors, the first being phonetic context. A. C. Gim­ son points out that [i:] in beat is only half about as long as the fi:l of bee and

44	Chapter 1. The Fu~ctionalAspect of Speech Sounds
may approximately have the same duration as the [I] vowel in bid because it is
generally known that a voiced consonant following a vowel increases its
length. But still the words bid and bead are perceived as different words be­
cause the vowels are different in quality, [I] being front-retracted, pure
monophthong, and [i:] being front close (narrow variation) and a diphthon­
gized vowel. The conclusion that follows is that vowel quantity cannot be
considered a minimal distinctive feature since it varies under the influence of
different phonetic context. So it is an incidental feature that characterizes
vowels of a certain quality. Summarizing we may say that this is an approach
to quantity of English vowels from phonological point ofview.
	It may be worth mentioning that the [ee] vowel being classed as histori­
cally short tends to be lengthened in Modern English, especially before
lenis consonants [b], [d], [g], [d3], [m], [nl, [z].ln this position [ee] has the
same quantity as long vowels [i:], [a:], [J:], [u:], [3:]. This extra length, as
A. C. Gimson points out, serves an additional distinctive feature and the
qualitative-quantitative relation of [ee] - [e] tends to become of the same
type as [i:] [I]. From this point ofview [ee] can possibly belong to the sub­
class of long vowels, and consequently the twelve English long vowel pho­
nemes may be divided into six phonetic pairs which members differ both in
quality and in quantity and of the two factors it is likely that the quality car­
ries the greater contrastive weight.
	There is one more articulatory characteristic that requires our attention.
That is tenseness. It characterizes the state ofthe organs ofspeech at the moment
ofthe production ofvowels. Special instrumental analysis shows that historically
long vowels are tense while historically short vowels are lax. This characteristic is
of extra-phonological type so tenseness may be considered an indispensable
	concomitant feature ofEnglish long vowels. On these grounds it can be included
	into classificatory description of vowels because it might be helpful in teaching
	students ofEnglish since there are no tense vowels in Russian.
	Summarizing we could say that phonological analysis of articulatory
	features of English vowels allows us to consider as functionally relevant the
	following one characteristic: tongue position.
	The rest of the features mentioned above, i. e.lip position, character of
	vowel end, length and tenseness are indispensable constituents of vowel
	quality. Though they have no phonological value they are quite important in
	teaching English phonetics.
	We might conclude by saying that we have tried to look at the consonan­
	tal and vocalic systems of the English language from phonological point of
	view. This sort of analysis enables us to defme what properties displayed by

,5. The System of English Phonemes

45

I\nglish sounds are significant in making them items of a system. Special (beus should be given to phonologically relevant features because they form (he basis of the pronunciation system of the language. Non-relevant indis­ pensable features should also be acquired as they form the basis of what is t'ulled a "foreign accent". \\Ie should remember that the quality of a speech tiuund is constituted by articulatory features of both kinds.

1.5.3. Modifications of speech sounds in connected speech

In connected speech sounds do not function as isolated units, theIr ar­ Ikulation is affected by their phonetic environment. In other words, speech Nounds influence each other in the chain ofspeech. Modifications ofspeech floLlnds that occur due to this influence are called assimilation, accomoda­ lion and elision.

Assimilation is the modification of a consonant under the influence of tlie neighbouring consonant. Accommodation is the process ofmutual influ­ ence of consonants and vowels. Elision is a complete reduction of sounds,

vowels and consonants.

These processes are generally accounted for by two factors. The first is (hc economy ofpronouncing efforts on the part ofthe speaker, whose aim is lu convey information effectively within the shortest possible time. The sec­ ond is purely physiological: it is the degree of mobility of particular organs or speech. Under the influence of these factors segments undergo certain dlanges and all sorts of simplifications take place. It should be mentioned Ihat these phonetic modifications do not affect the meaning of utterances lind do not create barriers in communication, since they are perceived by (he listener as normal allophonic realisations. However, foreign learners of I(nglish should be aware of phonetic adjustments in connected speech, be­ l;llUse ignoring them may lead to a strong accent.

1.5.3.1. Modifications of consonants

In modern English consonants undergo various qualitative changes in (lie chain of speech. The most common type of such changes is assimila­ I ion. Assimilation takes place when a consonant is adjusted in order to be­ t~()me more like a neighbouring sound. Assimilation occurs both within a word and at word boundaries. Assimilation can affect the place of articula­ tion, manner of articulation, work of the vocal cords and force of articula­ Iion, lip position.

46	Chapter I. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds
		,~\

Changes in the place ofarticulation

1.The alveolar allophones [t, d, n, 1] are replaced by dental variants when followed by the interdental [8, (j] (incomplete regressive assimilation): eighth, at the, breadth, on the, all that.

2.The alveolar [t, d] become post-alveolar under the influence ofthe post­

(incomplete

assimilation): tree, true, dry, the third

3.[5, z] turn into UJ before [J] (complete regressive assimilation): horse shoe, ['h::>:JJu'], this shop _

4.Nasal sonorants [n, m] are influenced by the following consonant: bila­ bial [m] and alveolar [n] become labio-dental when followed by labio­ dental [f, v]: triumph, infant, comfort, symphony. [n] becomes palato­ alveolar before the affricate [tf], pinch; in thank it assimilates to the velar

[k]and becomes velar.

Changes in the manner ofarticulation

1.Loss ofplosion. In the sequence oftwo plosive consonants the first los­ es its plosion (incomplete regressive assimilation): glad to see you, great trouble, an old clock, big cat.

2.Nasal plosion. When a plosive is followed by nasal sonorants [m, n], at the release stage the soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the nasal cavity with a slight plosion (incomplete regressive assimila­ tion): sudden, not now, at night, let me see.

3.Lateral plosion. In the sequence ofa plosive immediately followed by

lateral sonorant [1] the release is made with lowering of the sides of the tongue and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue with lateral plosion: settle, table, at last (incomplete regressive assimila­ tion).

Changes in the work ofthe vocal cords

This type of assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords and force of articulation.

1.English sonorants [m, n, r, w, 1] are partially devoiced when preceded by fortis voiceless consonants [p, t, k, 5] (incomplete progressive assimila­ tion): smart, tray, quick, twins, play, pride. This type of assimilation is common in English, but very rare in Russian.

2.Fortis voiceless/lenis voiced type regressive assimilation can be observed in such words as newspaper (news [z] + paper), gooseberry (goose [5] + berry). At word boundaries voiced lenis fricatives are commonly assimi­

1.5. The System Phonemes 47

lated to the initial voiceless fortis consonant ofthe following word: she's jive, have to do it, does Pete like it? It should be noted that only fricatives are affected by this type of assimilation, while plosives [b, d, g] remain voiced in similar context, big size, goodfellow.

3. Contracted forms of the verbs "is" and "has" may retain voice or be devoiced depending on the preceding consonant (incomplete progres­ sive assimilation): that's [5] right; Tom's [z] gone; Jack's [s] done it.

Assimilative voicing and devoicing can also be observed in the pro­ nunciation of the possessive suffix's or s', the plural suffix of nouns (e)s and the third person singular Present Simple of verbs: girl's, beds, reads, Pete's, desks, writes.

Changes in the

When followed by the bilabial sonorant [w] consonants change their lip position: they become labialized: twinkle, quite, swan.

There are also adjusment processes that are a result of the consonant ­ vowel interaction. They are generally described as accommodation or con­ sonant vowel coarticulation. Here are some most common types of ac­ comodation.

Consonants tend to be labialized when followed by a rounded alzed) vowel: cool, pot, rude.

Vowels are slightly nazalized under the influence ofthe preceding or fol­ lowing sonorants [m] and [n]: and, nice, men, morning.

Alveolar plosive [tl in the intervocal position before unstressed vowels is replaced by a voiced tap: pretty, better.

It should be noted that the allophonic realizations ofphonemes can be described as obligatory for all the members of the language community re­ gardless of the style of speech. It is obvious that the extent to which coar­ ticulation and simplification processes are displayed in connected speech depends on the style and tempo ofspeech. In formal speech the articulation is more careful and precise. In informal casual discourse (fast colloquial speech) these processes are more marked. They will be described in Chap­ lerv'

1.5.3.2. Modifications ofvowels

The phonetic process that affects English vowels in connected speech is called reduction. By vowel reduction we mean shortening or weakening of Ihe sound, or, in other words, shortening in length that is usually accompa­

Chapter 1. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds

48

nied by a change in quality. \bwel reduction in unstressed syllables is very

common both in English and in Russian.

In connected speech vowels can be exposed either to quantitative and qualitative reduction or both. These changes of vowels are determined by a number offactors, such as the position ofa vowel in a word and in an utter­

ance, accentual structure, rhythm, tempo ofspeech.

Quantitative reduction or shortening ofvowel length takes place in the following cases:

1.The length ofvowel depends on the immediate phonetic environment (positional length). Vowels are the longest in the final position, they are shorter before a voiced consonant and the shortest in a syllable

closed by a voiceless consonant, knee - need - neat.

2.Long vowels in form words are shortened in unstressed positions: At last

he [i'] has come.

Modifications in quality occur in unstressed positions. The most common form ofvowel reduction is reduction to schwa [a]. In its pro­ duction the tongue is the closest to the neutral position, the lips are unrounded and it is the shortest of all vowels. The pronunciation of schwa instead of some other vowel saves articulatory effort and time.

Man [meen] sportsman ['sp;:dsman], conduct ['knndakt] - conduct

[kan'dAkt]. You can easily do it [ju' kan i:zrlI ,du

Schwa is considered to be the most frequent sound in English. It is obviously the result of the rhythmic pattern in which stressed sylla­ bles alternate with unstressed ones. Unstressed syllables are given only a short duration and the vowel in them is reduced.

3. Vowels are slightly nasalized when preceded or followed by a nasal con­

sonant like in man, no, then, mean.

We would like to conclude by saying that certain interrelation which we observe between the full form of a vowel and its reduced forms is conditioned by the tempo, rhythm and style of speech.

Summary

The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same lan­ guage to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.

According to this definition the phoneme is a unity of three aspects: functional, material and abstract.

Sununary

49

The phoneme performs the distinctive function. The opposition ofpho­ nemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words.

The phoneme is realized in speech in the form ofspeech sounds, its al­ lophones. Allophones of the same phoneme possess similar articulatory features. The difference between the allophones is predictable and is the result of the influence ofthe neighbouring sounds.

The actually pronounced speech sounds (phones) are modified by pho­ nostylistic, dialectal and individual factors.

Native speakers abstract themselves from the difference between the al­ lophones of the same phoneme because it has no functional value but they have a generalized idea ofa complex ofdistinctive features, which cannot be changed without the change of meaning. This functionally relevant bundle ofarticulatory features is called the invariant ofthe phoneme.

The articulatory features which distinguish meaning and form the in­ variant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant. The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called non-distinc­ tive or irrelevant.

Transcription is a set ofsymbols representing speech sounds. Broad (or phonemic) transcription provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language and is used in EFL teaching. Narrow or allophonic transcription gives special symbols for allophones and is mainly used in research.

There exist various conceptions of the phoneme which can be grouped into the following main classes: "psychological" or "mentalistic" view (spe­ cial attention is given to the abstract aspect of the phoneme), "functional" view (concentrates on the ability of the phoneme to distinguish meaning), "physical" view (is concerned with the material aspect). The conception of the phoneme first put forward by L. V Shcherba is a comprehensive one: it gives equal importance to the three aspects ofthe phoneme.

The aim ofthe phonological analysis is, firstly, to determine the distinc­ tive features of sounds (or their phonemic status) and, secondly, to create the inventory ofthe phonemes ofa language (the phonemic system ofa lan­ guage). In other words, phonological analysis is aimed at identifYing the phonemes and classifying them.

There are two methods ofphonological analysis: formally distributional method and semantically distributional method. Formally distributional method is focused on the position ofa sound in the word, or its distribution. The semantically distributional (semantic) method is based on the phone­ mic rule that phonemes can distinguish words and morphemes when op­

Chapter I. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds

50

posed to one another in the same phonetic context. The main procedure is called commutation test. It consists in finding minimal pairs of words and their grammatical forms, i. e. pairs of words or morphemes which differ in only one sound in the same phonetic context. To establish the phonemic structure of a language it is necessary to establish the whole system of op­ positions. All the sounds should be opposed in word-initial, word-medial

and word-final positions.

There are special difficulties in establishing the phonemic status of sounds in their weak position. This problem is approached in different ways

by the Moscow and St. Petersburg phonological schools.

The application of phonological analysis shows that English phonemes are grouped into classes according to the distinctive (phonemic) features. The following features are distinctive for consonants: type of obstruction (manner of articulation), place of articulation and active organ of speech and force of articulation. The phonemic feature of vowels is vowel quality

(tongue position).

The articulation ofsounds in connected speech is affected by their pho­ netic environment. Speech sounds influence each other in the chain of speech. Modifications of speech sounds that occur due to this influence are called assimilation, accommodation, reduction and elision.

Chapter II

SYLLABIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS

2.1.The Phenomenon of the Syllable

2.2.Syllable Formation

2.3.Syllable Division (Phonotactics)

2.4.Functional Aspect ofthe Syllable

2.1. The Phenomenon of the Syllable

This chapter is concerned with the syllable as a phonetic and phono­ logical unit.

It is generally known that speech is a continuum. However it can be broken into minimal pronounceable units into which sounds show a ten­ dency to cluster or group themselves. These smallest phonetic groups are given the names of syllables. Being the smallest pronounceable units, the syllables are capable of forming language units of greater magnitude, 1. e. morphemes, words and phrases. Each of these units is characterized by a certain syllabic structure. Consequently we might say that a meaningful lan­ guage unit has two aspects: syllable formation and syllable division which form a dialectical unity.

Figure 7

Two Aspects of the Syllable

syllable fonnation

syllable division

Before we look at the English syllable in detail we should note that the study of the syllable has for a long time occupied an important place in Iin­

52	Chapter II. Syllabic Structure of English Words

guistics as a field of theoretical investigation. A considerable body of ex­ perimental work has been done but we have to admit that the problem ofthe .. syllable is still an open question in linguistics and phonetics.

The point is that the syllable is a fairly complicated phenomenon and like the phoneme it can be studied on four levels: acoustic, articulatory, au­ ditory and functional and so it can be approached from different points of view. This fact gave rise to a number oftheories the most consistent ofwhich are: the so-called expiratory theory, experimentally proved by R. H. Stetson; the sonority theory put forward by O. Jespersen; the theory of muscular ten- .. sion which wa<; sketched by L. V. Sherba and modified by V. A. Vasilyev, and the loudness theory, worked out by N. I. Zhinkin. Each of these theories is (in either explicit or implicit way) based on the idea of pulses the structure of which form what can be called an arc which correlates with the level of speech production and can be identified on the level of perception.

Since the syllable is not a simple concept no phonetician has successed so far in giving an exhaustive and adequate explanation of what the syllable

is. In short, there exist two points of view:

1. Some linguists consider the syllable to be a purely articulatory unit which lacks any functional value. This point of view is defended on the grounds that the boundaries of the syllable do not always coincide with

those ofthe morphemes.

2. However the majority of linguists treat the syllable as the smallest pronounceable unit which can reveal some linguistic function.

We should note here that the articulatory level of analysis suggests the existence of universals, that is categories applicable for all languages, while the functional level of analysis suggests treating each language separately, because as A. Gimson points out a similar sound sequence can be defined

differently in different languages.

The definition of the syllable from the functional point ofview makes it possible to single out the following features of the syllable:

a)the syllable is a chain of phonemes of varying length;

b)the syllable is constructed on the basis of contrast of its constituents

(which is usually of vowel consonant type);

c) the nucleus of the syllable is a vowel, the presence of consonants is optional; there are no languages in which vowels are not used as syllable nuclei, however there are languages in which this function can be performed

consonants;

d) the distribution of consonants in syllable structure follows the rules which are specific for a particular language.

It	Division (Phonotactics)	53

2.2. Syllable Formation

In English syllable formation is based on the phonological opposition vowel - consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic while consonants are not with the exception of [1), [m], [n], which become syllabic if they occur in an IInstressed final position, proceeded by a noise consonant, for example

Illlt!] -little, ['blusm] blossom, [,ga:dn] garden.

The structure of the syllable is known to vary because of the number and HITangement of consonants. In English four types of syllables are distin­ guished:

1) open	noCV
2) closed	[ud] odd VC
3) covered	note CV(C)
4) uncovered	[30] oh, [30k] oakV(C)

Here we should point out that due to its structure the English language developed the closed type of syllable as the fundamental one while in Russian it is the open type that forms the basis of syllable formation. The II umber ofthe syllable structural varieties is 23. The structure ofthe English syllable reveals variations in the number of prevocalic consonants from I

to 3 and post vocalic consonants from I to 5.

As to the number ofsyllables in the English word it can vary from one to oight, like in [kAm] come, ['SIb] city, [,fcem(a)li]jamily, fSlm'phsltI] simplicity,

IAI1'ncetJ(a)r(a)li] unnaturally, fmkampceU'blhti] incompatibility, ['Amn'tehd3i­ '1)JI<lti] unintelligibility.

So far we have described some of the aspects of syllable structure of English. The other aspect is syllable division.

2.3. Syllable Division (Phonotactics)

The linguistic importance ofsyllable division in different languages is in 11 nding typology of syllables and syllable structure of meaningful units of a Ilinguage, i. e. morphemes and words. It is the syllable division that deter­ mines the syllable structure of the language, its syllable typology.

Syllabic structure of a language is patterned like its phonemic structure, which means that the sounds ofa language can be grouped into syllables ac­ cording to certain rules. The part of phonetics that deals with this aspect of n language is called pbonotactics. Phonotactic possibilities of a language determine the rules of syllable division.

Chapter II. Syllabic Structure of English Words

54

As the phoneticians point out in the English language the problem of syllable division exists only in the case of intervocalic consonants and con­ sonant clusters like in the words ['sIb] city, [a'gri:] agree, ['ekstra] extra and others. In such cases the point ofsyllable division is not easily found. Let us consider the first case. Theoretically two variants are possible:

a)the point of the syllable division is after the intervocalic consonant;

b)the point of the syllable division is inside the consonant.

In both cases the first syllable remains closed according to the phonetic rules ofthe English language because the short vowel should remain checked. The results of instrumental analysis show that the point of syllable division in words like ['plh] pity, ['tupIk] topic, ['me3a] measure, [,bubI] Bobby is inside the intervocalic consonant. This conclusion is ofgreat importance for Rus­ sian learners of English. They should keep in mind that in the Russian lan­ guage the stressed syllable in the structure (C) VCV (C) is always open, like in y-xo, Mfl-ma, 0-6y6b, while in English this kind of syllable is always closed if the syllable vowel is short and checked. So it is necessary to make

transition from a vowel to a consonant very close.

Another type of intervocalic consonant clusters is the VCCV(C) type like in words [a'gri:] agree, [a'brApt] abrupt and so on. The syllabic boundar­ ies in these words can be determined with the help ofphonological criteria. In the above mentioned examples the words should be divided into syllables in the following way: [a-'gri:] [a-'brApt] because such combinations ofconso­ nants as [gr] and [brl are permissible initial clusters for the English lan­ guage. On the other hand there are clusters that can never occur in the word

initial position and consequently should be broken by syllable boundary like in the following cases [~d-'malal admire, [ab-'hJ:] abhor.

There are more complicated cases when the number of intervocalic consonants is three or more like in the word ['ekstra] extra and we have to state the possible points ofsyllable division.

a)['ek-str~] - back street

b)['eks-tr~] - six trees

c)['ekst-r~] - mixed ray

In such cases it is the native speaker's intuition that could be relied on. The subconscious feeling of a new pronunciation effort makes him divide the words ofsuch types into [,ek-stral. This natural way ofdivision is fixed in

the pronunciation dictionary.

In compounds word like ['t3ustrcek] toast-rack it is the morphological criterion that counts because the boundaries of the syllable should corre­ spond to morpheme boundaries.

2.4. Functional Aspect ofthe

55

2.4. Functional Aspect of the Syllable

Now we shall consider two very important functions ofthe syllable. The first is the constitutive function. It lies in the ability ofthe syllable to

be part of a word or a word itself. Syllables form language units of greater magnitude, that is words, morphemes and utterances. In this respect two things should be emphasized. First, the syllable is the unit within which the relations between the distinctive features of the phonemes and their acous­ tic correlates are revealed. Second, within a syllable (or a sequence ofsyl­ labIes) prosodic characteristics of speech are realized which form the stress pattern of a word and the rhythmic and intonation structure of an utter­ ance. In sum, the syllable is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and suprasegmental features.

The other function of the syllable is its distinctive function. The syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms. To illustrate this a set ofminimal pairs should be found so that qualitative and/or quantita­ tive peculiarities of certain allophones should indicate the beginning or the end ofthe syllable.

So far only one minimal pair has been found in English to illustrate the word distinctive function in the syllable, i. e. [naI-'trelt] nitrate - [nalt-'relt] night-rate. The distinction here lies in:

a) the degree ofaspiration of [t] sound which is greater in the first mem­ ber ofopposition than in the second;

b)allophonic difference of [r], in the first member of opposition it is slightly devoiced under the influence ofinitial [t];

c)length of the diphthong [al], in the second member of the opposition it is shorter because the syllable is closed by a voiceless plosive

So the syllable division changes the allophonic contents of the word be­ cause the realization ofthe phoneme in different syllable positions is different.

The analogical distinction between word combinations can be illustrat­ ed by many more cases:

an aim - a name mice kill - my skill

an ice house - a nice house peace talks - pea stalks plate rack - play track

Sometimes the difference in syllabic structure might differentiate the semantic structure ofan utterance:

56	Chapter II. Syllabic Structure of English Words				Chapter III
I saw her eyes. -	I saw her rise.				WORD STRESS
I saw the meat. -	I saw them eat.
Summarizing we might say that on the functional level of description
the syllable could be considered as the smallest pronounceable unit with
potential linguistic importance. That is why it reveals its functional value					3.1. Definition. The Nature of Stress
occasionally.
					3.2. English Word Stress. Production and Per­
By way ofconclusion we could enumerate the following peculiarities of					ception
the syllabic structure ofEnglish which are relevant for learners of English:
					3.3. Degrees ofWord Stress
1) syllabic boundary is inside intervocalic consonant preceded by a short
					3.4. Placement ofWord Stress
checked vowel;
					3.5. Tendencies in the Placement of Word
2) the sonorants [1], [m], [n] are syllabic, ifthey are preceded by noise
					Stress
consonants: little, blossom, sudden;
					3.6. Functions ofWord Stress
3) the typical and most fundamental syllable structure is of (C)CVC­
type.
Russian learners of English should be aware of the regularities govern­
ing the structure of monosyllabic and polysyllabic words. Wrong syllable
division on the articulatory level may lead to inadequate perception of
phrases and consequently to misunderstanding.
					3.1. Definition. The Nature of Stress
Summary					The sequence of syllables in the word is not pronounced identically:
The sy][able is the sma][est pronounceable unit capable offorming mor­					some syllables are more prominent than the others. They are called
					stressed syllables. So stress is a greater degree ofprominence of a syllable
phemes, words and phrases. As a meaningful language unit it has two aspects:					or syllables as compared to the other syllables of the word. A particular
syllable formation and syllable division which form a dialectical unity.					II combination of varying prominence ofsyUables in a word forms its stress
The syllable is a complicated phenomenon which can be viewed on four					I)attern.
levels: acoustic, articulatory, auditory and functional. There exist numerous					The effect ofprominence ofthe stressed syllable is achieved by a num­
theories of the syllable. Some of them consider the syllable to be a purely					ber of phonetic parameters such as pitch, loudness, length, vowel quality
articulatory unit without any functional value. The majority oflinguists re­					or their combination. As a result there appears a contrast between stressed
gard the syllable as the smallest pronounceable unit which can perform					and unstressed syllables.
some linguistic function.					There is another term widely used in phonetic literature to describe
In English syllable formation is based on the phonological opposition					this phenomenon - accent. The term "accent" generally refers to the
vowel - consonant. Four types ofsyllables are distinguished: open, closed,					pitch component of syllable prominence. Stress is a more general term
covered and uncovered.					Ihan accent because it includes both pitch and other components ofsyl­
The syllable division determines the syllable structure of the language,					lable prominence.
its syllable typology. Phonotactic possibilities of a language determine the					It should be mentioned that the word "accent" can also be used when
rules of syllable division.					I he syllable is perceived as accented due to the pitch prominence and the
The syllable performs two functions: constitutive and distinctive.					word is viewed as an utterance or part of an utterance. Even when we pro­

58	Chapter III. \VOrd Stress

nounce just one word there is a certain pitch change typical of a spoken sentence. This phenomenon will be considered in the section of this book

devoted to intonation.

The nature ofword stress can be studied from the point of view of pro­ duction and perception. The production ofstressed syllables requires more muscular energy. Greater muscular effort and muscular activity produce .1 higher subglottal pressure and an increase in the amount of air expelled from the lungs. On the acoustic level this extra articulatory activity leads to the increase of intensity, duration and fundamental frequency of the stressed syllable. On the perception level it corresponds to the increase of

loudness, length and pitch.

			Table 1
	Production and Perception ofthe Stressed Syllables
	Production and Perception	Stressed syllable
	Production level	Greater muscular effort
	Acoustic level	Increase intensity, duration, fundamental fre-
		quency
	Perception level	Increase ofioudness,

The balance of these components may be different in different lan­ guages. There are two main types of word stress in the languages of the world: dynamic and tonic (musical). The dynamic stress is achieved by greater force with which the syllable is prononuced. Greater intensity and duration of the stressed syllable which contains a vowel of full ar­ ticulation contribute to the effect of prominence. European languages such as English, German, French, Russian, have dynamic word stress. Musical stress is observed in Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese and other languages. This type of stress is the result of the change of pitch in the

stressed syllable.

Figure 8

Types ofWord Stress

word stress

tonic (musical)

3.2. English \VOrd Stress. Production and Perception

59

3.2. English Word Stress. Production and Perception

As regards the English word there is no agreement among linguists about the role of particular acoustic parameters in creating the effect of syllable promi­ nence. In other words, they have not arrived at the conclusion yet as to which of them contributes to a greater extent to our perception of a syllable as a stressed one. The English linguists D. Crystal (1969) and A. Gimson (1981) agree that English word stress is a complex phenomenon, marked by the variations in force, pitch, quantity and quality. Different scholars rank these parameters in different ways, however each description of English word stress includes loudness, pitch, length and quality. Let us give a brief overview ofeach of these parameters.

When we hear a word we often perceive the stressed syllable as louder than unstressed ones. It is the result ofgreater muscular effort which forces the stream ofair between the vocal cords which vibrate more vigourously. It creates the ef­ fect of greater loudness. However it is impossible to increase the loudness only without changing other characteristics ofthe syllable.

The syllable is perceived as prominent ifthere is a change ofpitch on it. The acoustic correlate of pitch is the frequency ofthe vibrations of the vocal cords. "Ifall syllables are said with low pitch except for one said with high pitch, then the high-pitched syllable will be heard as stressed and others as unstressed" (Roach, 2001). The placement of pitch change marks the seat of the stress. It

be noted that it is not the direction of pitch change that matters here, what counts is the movement itself. The fIrSt syllable in the word 'import will be perceived as stressed both when pronounced with the falling or the rising tone (.import, )mport). The shift ofstress to the second syllable (import) will be ac­ companied with a pitch movement on the second syllable.

The length of syllable contributes to the effect of prominence. A greater amount of energy in the production ofstressed syllable leads to the increase of its length as compared to the unstressed syllables.

The quality ofvowels also plays a certain role in creating the effect ofstress. A syllable tends to be perceived as prominent ifit contains a vowel which is dif­ ferent in quality from the vowels in othersyllables. \bwels in unstressed syllables are affected by quantitative and qualitative reduction and vowels in stressed syl­ lables are not. It creates a contrast which increases the prominence of stressed syllable.

To sum up, it is generally acknowledged that English word stress is a com­ plex phenomenon formed by interdependent components: loudness, length and vowel quality. As regards the ranking ofthe components they are not equally important, but they generally work in combination.