Grammatika_sovremennogo_angliyskogo_y

talk.

She ran up the stairs, her heart thumping painfully. I wouldn't dare go home without the job finished. He sat motionless, his hands over his eyes.

I can't sleep with the radio on.

The Structure of the Composite Sentence

A composite sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined together. The component parts of a composite sentence are called clauses. The relationship between the clauses may be that of coordination and subordination.

In the case of coordination we have a compound sentence whose clauses are independent of each other syntactically. They may be joined by some coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, but, or, yet, for, etc.) or asyndetically.

e.g. He was very busy now and they saw few of their friends.

I haven't got much news to convey but there are some things to add.

I began to miss London, yet I was not coming back.

You can boil yourself an egg, or I'll make you a cheese sandwich.

He asked for food — there was none. My parents are quite young, they live their own life.

In the case of subordination, one of the syntactic functions within a simple sentence is expressed by a clause thereby forming a complex sentence.

Cf. I know the girl's name, (object)

I know what the girl's name is. (object clause)

She learned to play tennis at school, (adverbial modifier of time)

She learned to play tennis when she went to school, (adverbial clause of time)

The basic structure is called the principal clause; the clause performing some syntactic function within the principal clause is termed a subordinate clause.

Structurally and semantically, subordinate clauses are subordinated to principal clauses and may be joined to them by means of conjunctions, conjunctive words, asyndetically and sometimes by means of the sequence of tenses.

Conjunctions (a) differ from conjunctive words (b) in that the former are not members of either the principal or subordinate clause while the latter perform some function within the subordinate clause.

e.g. a) I know (that) he is right. I was out when he came.

She had only a cup of tea because she was not hungry. b) He knew who had brought the letter.

They knew when I would come.

He showed me the watch that he was given as a birthday present.

Subordinate clauses may perform various functions within the principal clause. In comparison with the corresponding members of the simple sentence they can be said to be more expressive since they have a finite form in their structure.

For practical purposes of learning English, it is necessary and sufficient to distinguish the following kinds of subordinate clauses:

1) subject clauses which perform the function of subject and may be introduced by the conjunctions that, if, whether and such conjunctive words as who, what, which, when, why, how and others.

e.g. That you may meet him at the party is quite possible.

What I need now is someone to do the job.

2) predicative clauses which perform the function of predicative and may be introduced by the same conjunctions and conjunctive words as subject clauses (see above).

e.g. His only desire was that his family shouldn't interfere with his plans.

The question was why no one had heard the shot.

3) object clauses which modify verbs and adjectives as objects to them and may be introduced by the same conjunctions and conjunctive words as subject clauses (see above).

e.g. I thought (that) they were joking.

We were sorry (that) we had missed Father by a few minutes.

It was announced over the radio that the flight was delayed.

It was urgent that we should take a decision. It is very lucky that you're calling me now.

I wish you hadn't asked me that.

He found it important that they should start on the job right away.

They took it for granted that his theory was correct. Nobody knew what she meant.

He could not understand why they insisted on such a decision. Time will show if (whether) he is right.

It was not clear what had happened and who was injured.

4) adverbial clauses which function as adverbial modifiers to verbs and adjectives within the principal clause and may be of the following kinds:

a) adverbial clauses of time which are introduced by the conjunctions when, while, as, until, till, before, after, since, as soon as, as long as and some others,

e.g. When they reached the village, Jane got out of the taxi and looked about her.

I won't leave until you come.

b) adverbial clauses of place and direction which are introduced by the conjunction where,

e.g. They stopped where the road turned to the river.

c) adverbial clauses of cause which are introduced by the conjunctions because, as, since and some others,

e.g. He was glad to talk to her because it set her at ease.

d) adverbial clauses of purpose which are introduced by the conjunctions so that, that, in order that, lest,

e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly so that all could hear him.

e) adverbial clauses of condition which are introduced by the conjunctions if, in case, unless and some others,

e.g. If we start off now, we'll arrive there by dinner time.

: PRESSI ( HERSON )

f) adverbial clauses of concession conjunctions though, although, even if, nouns, ending in -ever,

which are introduced by the even though and wh-pro-

e.g. Although it was very late, she kept the dinner warm on the stove.

Even if the fault is all his, I must find a way to help him. Whatever happens, she won't have it her own way.

g) adverbial clauses of consequence which are introduced by the conjunctions that, so ... that, such ... that,

e.g. He was so embarrassed that he could hardly understand her.

h) adverbial clauses of comparison which are introduced by the conjunctions than, as, as...as, not so (as)...as, as if and as though.

e.g. He now took better care of his old father than he had ever done it before.

Her lips moved soundlessly, as if she were rehearsing.

5) attributive clauses which modify nouns within the principal clause and are introduced by the conjunctive (relative) words that, who(m), which, whose, as, when, where and some others as well as asyndetically (see also "Nouns' § 15),

e.g. I know a man who can help us.

We caught a breeze that took us gently up the river.

All the presents (that) he had given her were in their usual

places.

Where is the letter (which) I gave you to read?

6) appositive clauses which modify nouns within the principal clause and are introduced by the conjunction that. In form they look like attributive clauses but in content they are similar to object clauses because they explain and specify the meaning of the noun they refer to. It should be borne in mind that only a limited number of abstract nouns can be modified by appositive clauses (for the lists of such nouns see "Verbs", §§ 137-138, 204, 230),

e.g. I had the impression that she was badly ill.

We turned down his suggestion that we should take a boarder. The thought that she was unhappy kept him awake all night.

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS

Infinitive	Past Indefinite	Participle
abide	abode, abided	abided
arise	arose	arisen
awake	awoke, awakened	awoken
be	was, were	been
bear	bore	borne
beat	beat	beaten, beat
become	became	become
befall	befell	befallen
beget	begot	begotten
begin	began	begun
behold	beheld	beheld
bend	bent	bent

bereave	bereaved, bereft		bereaved, bereft
beseech	besought,		besought,
beset	beset		beset
bet	bet, betted		bet, betted
bid	bade, bid		bidden,bid
bind	bound		bound
bite	bit		bitten
bleed	bled		bled
blend	blended, blent		blended, blent
bless	blessed, blest		blessed, blest
blow	blew		blown
break	broke		broken
breed	bred		bred
bring	brought		brought
broadcast	broadcast		broadcast
build	built		built
burn	burnt, burned		burnt, burned
burst	burst		burst
buy	bought		bought
cast	cast		cast
catch	caught		caught
choose	chose		chosen
Infinitive	Past Indefinite		Participle
cleave	cleaved, clove, cleft		cleaved,	cloven,
cling	clung		clung
come	came		come
cost	cost		cost
creep	crept		crept
cut	cut		cut
deal	dealt		dealt
dig	dug		dug
do	did		done
draw	drew		drawn
dream	dreamed, dreamt		dreamed, dreamt
drink	drank		drunk
drive	drove		driven
dwell	dwelt, dwelled		dwelt, dwelled
eat	ate		eaten
fall	fell		fallen
feed	fed		fed
feel	felt		felt
fight	fought		fought
find	found		found
flee	fled		fled
fling	flung		flung
fly	flew		flown
forbear	forbore		forborne
forbid	forbade, forbad		forbidden
forecast	forecast		forecast
forego	forewent		foregone
foresee	foresaw		foreseen
foretell	foretold		foretold
forget	forgot		forgotten
forgive	forgave		forgiven
forsake	forsook		forsaken
freeze	froze		frozen
get	got		got, gotten
give	gave		given
go	went		gone
grind	ground		ground
grow	grew		grown

: PRESSI ( HERSON )

Infinitive		Past Indefinite		Participle
hang		hung, hanged		hung, hanged
have		had		had
hear		heard		heard
heave		heaved, hove		heaved, hove
hew		hewed		hewn, hewed
hide		hid		hidden, hid
hit		hit		hit
hold		held		held
hurt		hurt		hurt
keep		kept		kept
kneel		knelt, kneeled		knelt, kneeled
knit		knitted, knit		knitted, knit
know		knew		known
lay		laid		laid
lead		led		led
lean		leant, leaned		leant, leaned
leap		leapt, leaped		leapt, leaped
learn		learnt, learned		learnt, learned
leave		left		left
lend		lent		lent
let		let		let
He		lay		lain
light		lit, lighted		lit, lighted
lose		lost		lost
make		made		made
mean		meant		meant
meet		met		met
mislay		mislaid		mislaid
mislead		misled		misled
mistake		mistook		mistaken
misundersta		misunderstood		misunderstood
mow		mowed		mown, mowed
outdo		outdid		outdone
outgrow		outgrew		outgrown
overbear		overbore		overborne
overcast		overcast		overcast
overcome		overcame		overcome
overdo		overdid		overdone
Infinitive		Past Indefinite		Participle
overhear		overheard		overheard
overtake		overtook		overtaken
overthrow		overthrew		overthrown
partake		partook		partaken
pay		paid		paid
put		put		put
read		read		read
rebuild		rebuilt		rebuilt
recast		recast		recast
relay		relaid		relaid
rend		rent		rent
retell		retold		retold
rid		rid, ridded		rid, ridded
ride		rode		ridden
ring		rang		rung
rise		rose		risen
run		ran		run
saw		sawed		sawn, sawed
say		said		said
see		saw		seen
seek		sought		sought

sell		sold		sold
send		sent		sent
set		set		set
sew		sewed		sewn, sewed
shake		shook		shaken
shear		sheared		shorn,sheared
shed		shed		shed
shine		shone, shined		shone, shined
shoe		shod		shod
shoot		shot		shot
show		showed		shown, showed
shrink		shrank, shrunk		shrunk
shut		shut		shut
sing		sang		sung
sink		sank,sunk		sunk
sit		sat		sat
slay		slew		slam
sleep		slept		slept
slide		slid		slid
sling		slung		slung
Infinitive		Past Indefinite		Participle
slink		slunk		slunk
slit		slit		slit
smell		smelt, smellcd		smelt, smelled
smite		smote		smitten
sow		sowed		sown, sowed
speak		spoke		spoken
speed		sped, speeded		sped,speeded
spell		spelt, spelled		spelt, spelled
spend		spent		spent
spill		spilt, spilled		spilt, spilled
spin		spun,span		spun
spit		spat, spit		spat, spit
split		split		split
spoil		spoilt, spoiled		spoilt, spoiled
spread		spread		spread
spring		sprang, sprung		sprung
stand		stood		stood
stave		staved,stove		staved, stove
steal		stole		stolen
stick		stuck		stuck
sting		stung		stung
stink		stank, stunk		stunk
strew		strewed		strewn, strewed
stride		strode		stridden
strike		struck		struck
string		strung		strung
strive		strove, strived		striven, strived
swear		swore		sworn
sweep		swept		swept
swell		swelled		swollen, swelled
swim		swam		swum
swing		swung		swung
take		took		taken
teach		taught		taught
tear		tore		torn
tell		told		told
think		thought		thought
thrive		thrived, throve		thrived
throw		threw		thrown
thrust		thrust		thrust
tread		trod		trodden, trod
undergo		underwent		undergone
Infinitive		Past Indefinite		Participle

: PRESSI ( HERSON )

understand	understood	understood
underta	underto	undertak
ke	ok	en
upse	upset	upset
t	woke, waked	woken, waked
wear	wore	worn
weav	wove	woven
e	wedded,	wedded,
wee	wept	wept
p	won	won
win	woun	woun
withdraw	withdrew	withdrawn
withhold	withheld	withheld
wrin	wrun	wrun
g	g	g
write	wrote	writte