psychology

sphere or in the larger world. We have an innate need to feel a connection with others. We also have the need for acceptance and affiliation.

A genuine and passionate desire to contribute and to make a difference in the lives of others can be another form of social motivation. If we have a longing to make a contribution to the world around us, it is generally a sign that we are motivated by social factors.

The real importance of understanding the different types of motivation is in our ability to determine which form of motivation is the most effective for inspiring the desired behavior in either others or ourselves. None of these styles of motivation is inherently good or bad, the positive or negative outcome is truly determined by the way they are used.

Practical Task

Exercise 1 Learning principles influencing workplace learning

Emotional impact of past learning can be rewarding or de-motivating

Most managers‘ learning takes place in the ―on the job‖ environment

Managers differ in their preferred methods of learning Like a lot of things for effective learning you need both the WILL and the SKILL.

The table summarises the influence of these principles.

Job environment	Learning processes
Job content	Appropriate method
Boss	Teacher facilitator /coach
Colleagues	Range of opportunities
Subordinates

Individual approaches to learning	Organisational environment
Past experiences	Culture and climate
Rewards or punishments for learning	Organisational performance
Personal learning style preferences
Skills for learning

By understanding how the principles of learning act together to support or restrict adult learning you can plan what actions to take to suit your specific circumstances

Individual Task

Review you own circumstances

Which things are influencing your own learning?

Which of these principles of learning are most important for you?

Literature:

Beaumont, J.G. (1998) Understanding Neuropsychology. Oxford: Blackwell. Bloom, F.E.&Lazerson, A. (1988). Brain, Mind and Behavior 2ndedn. NewYork: W.H. Freeman.

Evans, P. (1989) motivation and Emotion. London: Routledge.

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Theme 9: Cognitive Activity of Psychology

Content:

1.Cognitive processes

2.Sensory and Perception

3.Attention

4.Memory

1.A cognitive activity is a private mental process for someone.Cognitive process - (psychology) the performance of some composite cognitive activity; an operation that affects mental Content; "the process of thinking"; "the cognitive operation of remembering"

2.Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send it to the brain.

Sherrington divided the sense organs into three groups:

interoceptive, characterized by taste receptors;

exteroceptive, such as receptors that detect sound, smell, light, and touch;

and proprioceptive, which involve the function of the synapse (Sherrington's word) and respond to events inside the body.

Synesthesia - a sensation produced in one modality when a stimulus is applied to another modality, as when the hearing of a certain sound induces the visualization of a certain color.

Sensory adaptation permits a living creature (human, animal, plant, microorganism) to find balance with its surroundings and efficiently respond to changes in stimuli

The absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. It is the softest sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything less than this goes unnoticed. The absolute threshold is therefore the point at which a stimuli goes from undetectable to detectable to our senses.

Once a stimulus becomes detectable to us, how do we recognize if this stimulus changes. The difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a change has occurred. This change is referred to as the Just Noticeable Difference.

By perception, we mean the act of interpreting the information which reaches us trough our senses.

Gestalt is a psychology term which means "unified whole". It refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These theories attempt to describe how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied.

Perceptual set theory stresses the idea of perception as an active process involving selection, inference and interpretation.

The concept of perceptual set is important to the active process of perception. Allport, 1955 defined perceptual set as: "a perceptual bias or predisposition or readiness to perceive particular features of a stimulus".

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It has been found that a number of variables, or factors, influence perceptual set, and set in turn influences perception. The factors include:

•Expectations

•Emotion

•Motivation

•Culture

(a)Bruner & Minturn, 1955 illustrated how expectation could influence set by showing participants an ambiguous figure '13' set in the context of letters or numbers e.g.

The physical stimulus '13' is the same in each case but is perceived differently because of the influence of the context in which it appears. We EXPECT to see a letter in the context of other letters of the alphabet, whereas we EXPECT to see numbers in the context of other numbers.

A study by Bugelski and Alampay, 1961 using the 'rat-man' ambiguous figure also demonstrated the importance of expectation in inducing set. Participants were shown either a series of animal pictures or neutral pictures prior to exposure to the ambiguous picture. They found participants were significantly more likely to perceive the ambiguous picture as a rat if they had had prior exposure to animal pictures

Allport, 1955 has distinguished 6 types of motivational-emotional influence on perception:

(i)bodily needs (e.g. physiological needs)

(ii)reward and punishment

(iii)emotional connotation

(iv)individual values

(v)personality

(vi)the value of objects.

(b) Hudson (1960) noted difficulties among South African Bantu workers in interpreting depth cues in pictures. Such cues are important because they convey information about the spatial relationships among the objects in pictures. A person using depth cues will extract a different meaning from a picture than a person not using such cues.

Hudson tested pictorial depth perception by showing participants a picture like the one below. A correct interpretation is that the hunter is trying to spear the antelope, which is nearer to him than the elephant. An incorrect interpretation is that the elephant is nearer and about to be speared. The picture contains two depth cues: overlapping objects and known size of objects. Questions were asked in the participants native language such as:

What do you see?’

‘Which is nearer, the antelope or the elephant?’ ‘What is the man doing?’'

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The results indicted that both children and adults found it difficult to perceive depth in the pictures. The cross-cultural studies seem to indicate that history and culture play an important part in how we perceive our environment. Perceptual set is concerned with the active nature of perceptual processes and clearly there may be a difference cross-culturally in the kinds of factors that affect perceptual set and the nature of the effect.

3.Attention. We cannot consciously attend to all of our sensory input at the same time.

Broadbent (1958) argued that information from all of the stimuli presented at any given time enters a sensory buffer. One of the inputs is then selected on the basis of its physical characteristics for further processing by being allowed to pass through a filter. Because we have only a limited capacity to process information, this filter is designed to prevent the information-processing system from becoming overloaded.

One of the ways Broadbent achieved this was by simultaneously sending one message (a 3-digit number) to a person's right ear and a different message (a different 3-digit number) to their left ear. Participants were asked to listen to both messages at the same time and repeat what they heard. This is known as a

'dichotic listening task‘.

4.Memory is the cognitive process, that is provided of remembering, preserving and further reproduction of past experience.

Memory‘ labels a diverse set of cognitive capacities by which we retain information and reconstruct past experiences, usually for present purposes.

Memory is one of the most important ways by which our histories animate our current actions and experiences.

Most notably, the human ability to conjure up long-gone but specific episodes of our lives is both familiar and puzzling, and is a key aspect of personal identity.

From the work on forgetting, we can see that is more than one way to remember or to forget things. One of the first psychologists to study memory was Ebbinghaus, who produced a book about human memory in 1885.

Herman Ebbinghaus was the first to experimentally investigate the properties of human memory. Influenced by the British Empiricists, Ebbinghaus assumed that the process of committing something to memory involved the formation of new associations and that these associations would be strengthened through repetition. To observe this process, he devised a set of items to be committed to memory that would have no previous associations, the so-called nonsense syllables. These consist of a sequence of consonant, vowel, and consonant (CVC) that does not spell anything in one's language -- in English, CAJ would be an example. Ebbinghause constructed lists of perhaps 20 of these items and then proceded to memorize these lists systematically. He would read the first item, say it to himself, then go on to the next item, repeat it to himself,

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and so on, spending the same amount of time on each item. One complete run through the list constituted a single repetition.

After some number of repetitions, Ebbinghaus would attempt to recall the items on the list. It turned out that his ability to recall the items improved as the number of repetitions went up, rapidly at first and then more slowly, until finally the list was mastered. This was the world's first learning curve.

To test retention, Ebbinghaus practiced a list until he was able to repeat the items correctly two times in a row. He then waited varying lengths of time before testing himself again. Forgetting turned out to occur most rapidly soon after the end of practice, but the rate of forgetting slowed as time went on and fewer items could be recalled. This curve represented the the first forgetting curve.

One of the important memory phenomena discovered by Ebbinghaus is the overlearning effect. You can of course continue to practice memorizing a list beyond that required to produce two perfect recalls. For example, if it required 10 repetitions to memorize the list, then you might continue for an additional ten repetitions -- this would be "100% overlearning." The effect of overlearning is to make the information more resistant to disruption or loss. For example, the forgetting curve for overlearned material is shallower, requiring more time to forget a given amount of the material.

Ebbinghaus invented several tests of retention, as listed and described below:

Recall -- simply try to remember each item. Ebbinghaus used two types of recall task:

o Free recall -- attempt to recall the list items; order is not important. o Serial recall -- attempt to recall the list items in the order studied.

Recollection -- given a large list of CVS's try to recognize which of them

had been on the list studied. This technique is more sensitive test of memory than recall; a person may be able to recognize an item that he or she could not recall.

Savings -- rememorize the list (usually used after a long retention interval, when neither recall nor recognition produce much evidence of prior learning). Compare the number of repetitions required to learn the list the first time to the number required the second time. A handy measure is percent savings. For example, if it required 20 trials to memorize the list, and only 10 trials to rememorize it, then this represents 50% savings. Savings is the most sensitive test of memory, as it will indicate some residual effect of previous learning even when recall and recognition do not.

Ebbinghaus was the first to discover the serial position curve -- the relation between the serial position of an item (its place in the list) and the ability to recall it. Items near the beginning of the list are easier to recall than those in the middle (the primacy effect). Those near the end of the list are also earier to recall than those in the middle (the recency effect.) These two effects together yield a curve that is roughly U - shaped.

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The normal serial position curve shows that items in the middle of a list are the most difficult to commit to memory. However, this disadvantage can be reduced or eliminated by making the item distinctive, so that it stands out from the other middle-list items. For example, the item could be printed in red when the rest of the items are printed in black. The contrasting color draws attention to the item, and it receives more processing. Consequently, it is memorized more easily than its mere serial position would dictate. In addition, items on either side of the distinctive item may also benefit somewhat. The improved memory for distinctive items in the middle of a list is known as the Von Restorff effect, after its discoverer.

Questions

1.What are the main assumptions of the multistory model? What are the strengths and limitations of this model?

2.Describe the levels-processing theory. What evidence supports it? What evidence does not support it?

3.What did the Gestaltists say about perceptual organization? To what extent have studies supported the Geshtalists?

4.What are perceptual hypotheses? Describe some studies showing the effects of these hypotheses on perception.

Practical Task

Exercise 1 PatternRecognition

Our senses provide the information that enables us to detect the presence of objects and then to distinguish different object from each other. Each sense organ has the job of detecting the presence of a particular kind of energy (light, Chemical, sound) and differentiating among different levels of that type of energy. We call the minimum amount of energy that the sense organ can detect the detection threshold or absolute threshold. The difference threshold or just noticeable (jnd) is the smallest change in energy that the sense organ can perceive; the amount of change needed to tell that two things are different. We use these abilities constantly as we perform our everyday tasks. There is also debate about how much we rely on information that is below our ability to detect. Energy that cannot be detected by a sense organ is called subliminal or subthreshold.

For each of the situations below, identify which of the following concepts is necessary to complete the task successfully: absolute threshold, difference, or subthreshold. Then think up your own examples from your daily life, to illustrate each of these concepts.

A women preparing for a trip to Mexico tries to learn Spanish using a ‗Learn While You Sleep‘ tape.

A sentry on night duty notices a very soft noise and calls out for the thief to

‗Halt!‘

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A father takes his children to the playground. During the visit, a child starts to cry. Without looking, the father can tell that it is not his child‘s cry.

There is a sale on 5-pound pre-packaged russet potato bags. In order to make sure that you get the most for your money, you pick up several to see which is the heaviest.

You help your friend look for her contact lens on her white kitchen floor.

A music group records the phrase ‗Buy our tapes‘ backwards in one of their songs.

It is late at night and you are trying to go to bed without waking your roommate. You want to find your favourite nightwear without turning on the light. After carefully and quietly opening your dresser drawer, you reach in and try to pick up it out of the four other things that are in the drawer.

You are one of the judges in a chili-tasting contest and are trying to select the winner of the ‗Hottest Chili‘ award.

In that same chili-tasting contest, you are asked to try to identify which of en chili samples contains cinnamon.

Your examples

Absolute threshold:______________________________________________

Different threshold:______________________________________________

Subtheshold:___________________________________________________

Literature:

Beaumont, J.G. (1998) Understanding Neuropsychology. Oxford: Blackwell. Bloom, F.E.&Lazerson, A. (1988). Brain, Mind and Behavior 2ndedn. NewYork: W.H. Freeman.

Evans, P. (1989) motivation and Emotion. London: Routledge.

Ray, J. (1989). The Psychology of Fear and Stress 2ndedn.London: Weidenfeld. Green, S. (1993). Principles of Bio-Psychology. London: Erlbaum.

Hayes, N. (1998). Foundations of Psychology 2ndedn. London: Nelson. Kalat, J.W. (1992). Biological Psychology. Pacific Grove: Brooks Cole.

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Theme 10: Critical thinking and problem solving

1Defining thinking

2Different Types of Thinking‖

3Intelligence

4Critical Thinking

5The problem solving strategy

1)Defining thinking

Osgood (1953) defined thinking as ―internal representation of events‖;

Piaget (1952) on the other hand, saw thinking as arising from a biological process of adaptation to the environment;

Dewey (1933) saw thinking as something which arises when we have a mismatch or discrepancy between what we expect to happen and what really happen.

2) ―Different Types of Thinking‖

1.Critical thinking - This is convergent thinking. It assesses the worth and validity of something existent. It involves precise, persistent, objective analysis. When teachers try to get several learners to think convergently, they try to help them develop common understanding.

2.Creative thinking - This is divergent thinking. It generates something new or different. It involves having a different idea that works as well or better than previous ideas.

3.Convergent thinking - This type of thinking is cognitive processing of information around a common point, an attempt to bring thoughts from different directions into a union or common conclusion.

4.Divergent thinking - This type of thinking starts from a common point and moves outward into a variety of perspectives.

5.Inductive thinking - This is the process of reasoning from parts to the whole, from examples to generalizations.

Jean Piaget has put forward a highly influential theory of cognitive development. He suggest that there are qualitative differences between the thinking of children at different ages. Piaget‘s basic assumption is that intelligence is an innate capacity that allows to adapt ever more effectively to their environment.

As the child‘s cognitive ability develops, its thinking passes through a numbers of stages. Each stage of development is qualitatively different from the others. The stages and their key characteristics are outlined in under.

Stage	Main Features
Sensorimotor	Infants obtain knowledge through experiencing and acting
0-2 years	on the world. Object permanence develops – the child
	understands that things continue to exist even though they
	are out of sight.
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Pre-operational	The child can use mental symbols to think about the world
2-7 years	but its cognitive capacities are still limited. The child‘s
	thought is egocentric (it cannot take the perspective of
	another person) and it has difficulty classifying object.
Concrete	The child develops mental rules (operations) for thinking
operational	about the world (e.g. adding and subtracting). This allows
7-11 years	the child to classify object and recognize the logical
	relations between them.
Formal operational	The child becomes capable of fully abstract thought and
11+ years	can solve problems in a systematic way.

3)Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including, but not limited to, logic, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving.

Intelligence -the degree to which one can adapt to one‘s environment.

Intelligence Quotient [IQ] -the scores achieved on psychological tests aimed at quantifying intellectual ability.

Alfred Binet

The first workable intelligence test was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet. He and his partner, Theodore Simon, were commissioned by the French government to improve the teaching methods for developmentally disabled children. They believed that intelligence was the key to effective teaching, and developed a strategy whereby a mental age (MA) was determined and divided by the child's chronological age (CA). This formula, stated as "MA/CA X 100."

4)Critical Thinking

Instruction in critical thinking is to be designed to achieve an understanding of the relationship of language to logic, which should lead to the ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas, to reason inductively and deductively and to reach factual or judgmental conclusions based on sound inferences drawn from unambiguous statements of knowledge or belief (Dumke, 1980).

Critical Thinking - ―reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to do and what to believe‖ OR ―interpreting, analyzing or evaluating information, arguments or experiences with a set of reflective attitudes, skills, and abilities to guide our thoughts, beliefs and actions‖ OR ―examining the thinking of others to improve our own‖

Critical Thinking: What is involved? Question: what is being asked? Purpose: why do I want the answer?

Point of View: where do I stand to look at the question? Information: what data do I have?

Concepts: what ideas are involved? Assumptions: what am I taking for granted?

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Inferences: what conclusions am I drawing?

Consequences: what are the implications of my question?

Skills of critical thinking

•Conceptualizing— developing a ―mind picture‖

•	Applying—puttingconceptual info to	use
•	Analyzing—closelyexamining, tearing apart or breaking down to really
look at
•	Synthesizing—pulling things together in a well-organized logical way

•Evaluating—making decisions about; reviewing; assessing; rtc.

What is a Claim?

•A claim is a statement which can be either true or false, but not both.

•A claim is an assertion you want to have accepted as a fact and not be disputed.

•When evaluating a claim, you have three choices:

•	accept the claim
•	reject the claim
•	suspend judgment until you have more information

•What is an Argument?

•An argument is a set of claims.

•Arguments begin with premises and lead to a conclusion

• A good argument is one in which the premises lead logically to a strong or valid conclusion.

4) The problem solving strategy

The IDEAL Method

Identify the problem.

Define the problem.

Explore alternative approaches.

Act on the best strategies.

Look back to evaluate the effects.

1) Specify the problem - a first step to solving a problem is to identify it as specifically as possible. It involves evaluating the present state and determining how it differs from the goal state.

2)Analyze the problem - analyzing the problem involves learning as much as you can about it. It may be necessary to look beyond the obvious, surface situation, to stretch your imagination and reach for more creative options.

seekotherperspectives

beflexibleinyouranalysis

considervariousstrandsofimpact

brainstorm about all possibilities and implications

research problems for which you lack complete information. Get help.

3)Formulate possible solutions - identify a wide range of possible solutions.

try to think of all possible solutions

becreative

consider similar problems and how you have solved them

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