Копия УМП Теор фонетика каз 2014.doc

	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The 'whole organi'zation of the 'meeting was 'faulty.

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	Л.Н. Гумилев атындағы	Оқу-әдістемелік құралы	Басылым:
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Lecture 9.Articulatory transitions of vowels and consonants

Дәріс мақсаты: дауысты және дауыссыз дыбыстардың артикуляциялық ауысу түрлерін қарастыру.

Phonemes are best described in terms of target positions with articulatory (and resulting acoustic) transitions between the two targets. These transitions share the characteristics of the two targets.

A "transition" in speech is caused by the movement of articulators between phoneme targets. Phonemes can be defined in terms of one or more idealised articulatory targets. For example, a monophthong vowel is defined as having one target whilst a diphthong vowel is defined as having two targets. There are transitions between the targets of two adjacent phonemes as well as between the multiple targets within a single phoneme.

The transition between two phonemes shares the articulatory and acoustic characteristics of both phonemes but gradually changes from being predominantly like the first phoneme target to predominantly like the second phoneme target.

Assimilation

In the process of speech, that is in process of transition from the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned:

a) by the complementary distribution of the phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes back-advanced under the influence of the preceidingmediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude.

The mid-open, front /e/ becomes more open followed by the dark /l/ in hell, tell, sell. Compare with bet, let, set.

In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under the influence of the fully front I'v.lwhich follows it.

b)by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of the following interdental phoneme.

c)by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. slight pressure /‘slait ‗preʃǝ/ may turn into /‘slaip‘preSэ/ in colloquial speech.

Assimilation is the chief factor under the influence of which the principal variants of phonemes are modified into subsidiary ones.

Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of neighbouring consonant, e.g. put back /pʊtbæk/ into /pʊpbæk/.

When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. cool, tea

When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. waist paper /‘weist ‗peipэ/ may turn into /‘weis‘peipэ/.

When the two neighbouring sounds are affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.

Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent consonants becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced

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consonant, or voiceless — under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant, e.g. gooseberry.

The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /l/. e. g. please, candle, cattle (see above).

Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp, pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like: /kt/, /ktf/, /dg/, /db/, /tb/. In the first case a single plosive is pronounced with a very long hold, e. g, attraction, lamp post, what time, went down, big cat. In the second case the closure of the organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. The first is incomplete, or lost, e, g. act, fact, good girl, hot bottle. In Russian similar plosives have the three stages, which results in two explosions for both plosives: акт, факт.

Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /t/ is followed by the constrictive, post-alveolar /r/.For example, in the word trip alveolar /t/ becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release.

In should you /ijudju:/ the place of the alveolar /d/ can be changed into palato-alveolar /dg/, which is not a plosive but an affricate, under the influence of the palatal /j7. which follows /d/: /'Judgu:/.

Assimilation which occurs in the present-day pronunciation is called living, and which took place at an earlier stage of the language is called historical (произнесениеслов pressure, mesure).

The present-day pronunciation of the words session, question, nature, occasion results from the historical assimilation of /sj/, /tj/, /zj/ to /ʃ/.

As far as the direction of assimilation (and accommodation) is concerned it can be:

1.progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. desks, pegs.

2.Regressive, when the second sound makes the first sound similar to itself, e.

g. at the.

3.Double, when two sounds influence each other, e. g. twice /t/ is rounded and /w/ is partly devoiced.

Each sound pronounced in isolation has three stages in its articulation. Firstorgans move to the position of pronunciation, it‘s called excursion. On the second stage the organs of speech are kept for some time in the position necessary to pronounce the sound, thatis called hold. And the third is when organs move to the neutral position and it‘s called recursion.

There are two ways of joining the sounds: (1) merging of stages – when the final stage of the first sound merges with the initial stage of the second sound, loose type of articulatory transition and (2) interpenetration of stages – when the final stage of the first sound penetrates not only the beginning but also the middle of the second sound – close type of articulatory transition.

Interpretation of stages takes place when sounds of a similar, or identical nature are joined together. In the words act, bottle the clusters /kt/, /tl/ are pronounced with the ―loss of plosion‖ - /kt/ and lateral plosion - /tl/

In a sequence: affricate -ʃ- a stop, the affricate is released in the usual way, e.

g. sketchbook /'sketʃbuk/ — the alveolar release of /p/ takes place in the usual audible way.

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When a plosive is followed by the nasal /n, m/ the closure is released nasally: the soft palate lowers during the hold of the stop, releasing the compressed airstream through nasal cavity; /bm, tn, dn/ — nasal plosion.

Russian learners are apt to mispronounce English clusters /tn/, /dn/, /kt/, /gd/ because the mechanisms of the articulatory transitions from /t, d/ to /n/, from /k, g/ to /t, d/ in English and the Russian clusters /пт/, /kt/, /гд/ are different, that is, the timing of the work of the power, vibrator, resonator and obstructor mechanisms in English and Russian is different. For example the Russian clusters /пт/, /kt/, /гд/ :in аптека, факт, где /т, д/ are pronounced with an audible plosion of /п, к, г/.

Cases of loose and close articulatory transition can also be observed

1. themechanism of the aspiration of the initial stressed /p, t, W in English. Aspiration is a delay in the onset of voicing. A brief period of voicelessness is heard after the hold of /p, t, k/, which sounds like a puff of air after the release of the stop: Pete, tick, Kate /phi:t/, /thik/, /kheit/ before the vowel, which follows /p, t, k/. Russian /n, T, к/ under similar conditions are unaspirated: the vocal cords begin vibrating immediately after the release of the closure for /п, т, к/: пить, Тим, кит — close CV transition;

2. the mechanism of the Russian CV transition, when a consonant is followed by the front /и/ is more close than the English consonant to /i/ or /j/ transition, compare: Pete —

пить, neat — нить, beat —бить, seen — синь, meal — мил, кет — лим, leap —■ лип, veal —бил.

Both in Russian and in English the vowel articulation is superimposed on the consonant articulation which precedes it, this results in palatalization. However the delay in the onset of the vowel is longer in English than in Russian, which is characterized by the more obvious softening in the Russian consonants during the CV transition — close type.

Labialization in English (no lip protrusion) and Russian similarly involves the liprounding in addition to the primary articulation — close CV transition.Compare: Paul —

Пол, tool — Тула, tall — тол, pull — пуля, call — кол, boor — бур, cool — куль, buck —

бука.

Elision

Elision can be historical and contemporary.

English spelling is full of "silent" letters which bear witness to historicalelision, e.g. walk /wo:k/, knee /ni:/, knight /nait/, castle /‘ka:sl/, write /rait/, iron /airn/, etc.

The most common cases of contemporary elision are the following: elision of /t, d/ in

a) /ft, st, ʃt, ðt, vd, zd, θd/ sequences:

cleft palate /‘klef ,pælǝt/ waste paper /'weis ,реiрэ/

b)/pt, kt, bd, gd, tft, dsd/ sequences; trapped by /‘trэep ,bai/

cracked pots /'krэek ,pots/

c)/md, rid, gd/ sequences:

hair-brained scheme /‘heabrein ,ski:m/

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	Еуразия ұлттық университеті		үшінші

In a), b), c) cases elisions most frequently remove the marker of past tense in verbs. The meaning is usually clear from the context

There are some words and verbal forms in which elision frequently exists in everyday speech.

Assimilation in English differs from the Russian mainly along "the lines of direction: progressive voicing or devoicingis very rare in Russian, but quite common in English. It occurs in the following cases:

Contracted forms of	the verbs, when	the ending	s	is	preceded
by a voiced or a voiceless consonant, e,g. Bob's gone, that's right.
1. Suffixes -(e)s	of the nouns in the	plural, or	the	third	person
singular, e.g. girls, rooms, books, writes.

2.The possessive suffix -s' or -'s, e.g. Jack's hat, Bob's dog,

3.The past indefinite suffix -ed, e.g. played, worked, lived. Cases of English regressive voicing or devoicing are very rare,

e.g. five pence /‘faifpэns/, gooseberry /,'gu:zberi/; these are cases of historical assimilation.

Regressive voicing or devoicing in Russian is obligatory both within a word and at the word boundary, e.g. пробка, сказка, возсена, подстолом.

Regressive assimilation of this type is very rare inside words in English, e.g. newspaper /‘nju:speipa/.

However it is observed in word boundaries in rapid, careless speech (see above).

Care should be taken to avoid regressive assimilation in such English words as tennis ball /items bo:l/, blackboard /‘blaekbo:d/ and in the word boundaries: English book /‘ingliS ‗buk/, like that /laiklöaet/, these people /'Bi:z ‗pi:pl/.

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Lecture 10. Structure of English language intonation. Lecture 11. Intonation groups. Basic nuclear tones in English.

Дәріс мақсаты: ағылшын тіліндегі интонация құрылымымен таныстыру; ағылшын тіліндегі интонация топтары мен негізгі тондарымен таныстыру.

Intonation is a powerful means of human intercommunication. One of the aimsof communication is the exchange of information between people. The meaning of anEnglish utterance, i.e. the information it conveys to a listener, derives not only from thegrammatical structure, the lexical composition and the sound pattern. It also derives fromvariations of intonation, i.e. of its prosodic parameters.

David Crystal in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language [1997:173] offers thefunctions of intonation summarized as follows:

	Table 10.1
Function	Its explanation
1. Emotional	to express a wide range of attitudinal meanings – excitement,
	boredom,surprise, friendliness, reserve, etc. Here, intonation works along
	withother prosodic and paralinguistic features to provide the basis of
	allkinds of vocal emotional expression.
2. Grammatical	to mark grammatical contrasts. The identification of such major units as
	clause and sentence often way pitch contours break up an utterance; and
	several specific contrasts depends on the, such as question and statement, or
	positive and negative, may rely on intonation.Many languages make the
	important conversational distinction between‗asking‘ and ‗telling‘ in this
	way, e.g. She’s here, isn’t she! (where a risingpitch is the spoken equivalent
	of the question mark) vs She’s here,isn’t she! (where a falling pitch
	expresses the exclamation mark).
3. Information	To convey what is new and what is already known in the meaningof an
structure	utterance – what is referred to as the ‗information structure‘ of the utterance.
	If someone says I saw a BLUE car, with maximum intonational prominence
	on blue, this presupposes that someone haspreviously asked about the
	colour; whereas if the emphasis is on I, it presupposes a previous question
	about which person is involved. It would be very odd for someone to ask
	Who saw a blue car!, and for thereply to be: I saw a BLUE car!
4. Textual	to construct larger than an utterance stretches of discourse.
	Prosodiccoherence is well illustrated in the way paragraphs of information
	aregiven a distinctive melodic shape, e.g. in radio news-reading. As
	thenews-reader moves from one item of news to the next, the pitch
	level jumps up, then gradually descends, until by the end of the item
	thevoice reaches a relatively low level.
5. Psychological	to organize language into units that are more easily perceived
	andmemorized. Learning a long sequence of numbers, for example,
	proveseasier if the sequence is divided into rhythmical ‗chunks‘.
6. Indexical	to serve as markers of personal identity – an ‗indexical‘ function.
	Inparticular, they help to identify people as belonging to different
	socialgroups and occupations (such as preachers, street vendors,
	armysergeants).

Peter Roach summarizes the following functions of intonation [1995] most of which are, on a closer look, overlapping with the above given ones:

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		Table 10.2
	Function	Its Explanation
1.	Attitudinal	intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak,and
		this adds a special kind of 'meaning' to spoken language.
2.	Accentual	intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables thatneed
		to be perceived as stressed, and in particular the placing of tonicstress on
		a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongsas the most
		important in a tone unit.
3.	Grammatical	the listener is better able to recognize the grammar and the
		synctacticstructure of what is being said by using the information
		contained inthe intonation: for example, such things as the placement of
		boundariesbetween phrases, clauses and statements and the use of
		grammaticalsubordination may be indicated.
4.	Discourse	intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as
		NEWinformation and what is already GIVEN, can suggest when the
		speakeris indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in
		anothertone-unit and, in conversation, can convey to the listener what
		kind of response is expected.

The communicative function of intonation is realized in various ways whichcan be grouped under five general headings. Intonation serves:

1.To structure the information content of a textual unit so as to show whichinformation is new or cannot be taken for granted, as against information whichthe listener is assumed to possess or to be able to acquire from the context, that isgiven information.

2.To determine the speech function of a phrase, i.e. to indicate whether it is intendedas a statement, question, command, etc.

3.To convey connotational meanings of "attitude" such as surprise, annoyance, enthusiasm, involvement, etc. This can include whether meaning are intended, over and above the meanings conveyed by the lexical items and the grammatical structure.

4. To structure a text. Intonation is an organizing mechanism. On the one hand, it delimitates texts into smaller units, i.e. phonetic passages, phrases and intonationgroups, on the other hand, it integrates these smaller constituents forming acomplete text.

5.To differentiate the meaning of textual units (i.e. intonation groups, phrases andsometimes phonetic passages) of the same grammatical structure and the samelexical composition, which is the distinctive or phonological function of intonation.

6.To characterize a particular style or variety of oral speech which may be called the stylistic function.

There is no general agreement about either the number or the headings of the functions of intonation. T.M. Nikolajeva names the three functions of intonation: delimitating,integrating and semantic functions [1977]. L.K. Tseplitis suggests the semantic, syntactic and stylistic functions the former being the primary and the two latter beingthe secondary functions [1974]; N.V. Cheremisina singles out the followingmain functions of intonation: communicative, distinctive (or phonological), delimitating,expressive, appellative, aesthetic, integrating [1973].

J.D. O'Connor and G.F. Arnold assert that a major function of intonation is toexpress the speaker's attitude to the situation he is placed in, and they attach thesemeanings not to prehead, head and nucleus separately, but to each of ten "tone-unittypes" as they combine with each of four sentence types, statement, question, commandand exclamation.

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M. Halliday supposes that English intonation contrasts are grammatical. He argues first that there is a neutral or unmarked tone choice and then explains all other choices asmeaningful by contrast [1970]. Thus if one takes the statementI don't know the suggestedintonational meanings are:

Low Fall – neutral

Low Rise – non-committal High Rise – contradictory Fall-Rise – with reservation Rise-Fall – with commitment

Unlike J.D. O'Connor and G.F. Arnold, M. Halliday attributes separate significanceto the pre-nuclear choices, again taking one choice as neutral and the other(s) as mean-ingful by contrast.

D. Crystal presents an approach based on the view "that any explanation of intonational meaning cannot be arrived at by seeing the issues solely in either grammaticalor attitudinal terms". He ignores the significance of pre-head and head choices and dealsonly with terminal tones. He supports R. Quirk's view that a tone unit has a falling nucleus unless there is some specific reason why it should not and illustrates this statementby observing that non-final structures are marked as such by the choice of lowor mid-rising or level tones [Crystal 1969].

M.A. Sokolova, K.P. Gintovt, I.S. Tikhonova and R.M. Tikhonova‘s approach is different again. On the phonological level intonation is viewed as a complex structure of allits prosodic parameters. They see the description of intonation structure as one aspect of the description of interaction and argue that intonation choices carry information aboutthe structure of the interaction, the relationship between and the discourse function of individual utterances, the international "given-ness" and "newness" of information andthe state of convergence and divergence of the participants.

There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. One is known as acontour analysis and the other may be called grammatical.

The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, G. Palmer, L. Armstrong, I. Ward, R. Kingdon, J. O'Connor, A. Gimson and others. It is traditional and widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic meaning can beattached is a tone-group (sense-group). Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional "blocks".

The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by M. Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. Tone is the third unit in Halliday's system. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker. Hallyday's theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation.

The founder of the American school of intonation K. Pike in his book «The Intonation of American English» considers «pitch phonemes» and «contours» to be the main units of intonation. He describes different contours and their meanings, but the word «meaning» stands apart from communicative function of intonation.

M. Sokolova and others write that the term prosody embraces the three prosodic components and substitutes the term intonation. It is widely used in linguistic literature, it causes no misunderstanding and, consequently, it is more adequate. They feel strongly that

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this term would be more suitable for their book too, but, unfortunately, it has not been accepted in the teaching process yet.

Many foreign scholars (A. Gimson, R. Kingdon) restrict the formal definition of intonation to pitch movement alone, though occasionally allowing in variations of loudness as well. According to D. Crystal, the most important prosodic effects are those conveyed by the linguistic use of pitch movement, or melody.

Let us consider the components of intonation.

In the pitch component we may consider the distinct variations in the direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range.

According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall, High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.

The meanings of the nuclear tones are difficult to specify in general terms. Roughly speaking the falling tone of any level and range expresses certainty, completeness, and independence. A rising tone on the contrary expresses uncertainty, incompleteness or dependence. A falling-rising tone may combine the falling tone's meaning of assertion, certainty with the rising tone's meaning of dependence, incompleteness. At the end of a phrase it often conveys a feeling of reservation; that is, it asserts something and at the same time suggests that there is something else to be said. At the beginning or in the middle of a phrase it is a more forceful alternative to the rising tone, expressing the assertion of one point, together with the implication that another point is to follow. The falling-rising tone, as its name suggests, consists of a fall in pitch followed by a rise. If the nucleus is the last syllable of the intonation group the fall and rise both take place on one syllable. In English there is often clear evidence of an intonation-group boundary, but no audible nuclear tone movement preceding. In such a circumstance two courses are open: either one may classify the phenomenon as a further kind of head or one may consider it to be the level nuclear tone. Low Level tone is very characteristic of reading poetry. Mid-Level tone is particularly common in spontaneous speech functionally replacing the rising tone. There are two more nuclear tones in English: Rise-Fall and Rise-Fall-Rise. But adding refinement to speech they are not absolutely essential tones for the foreign learner to acquire. Rise-Fall can always be replaced by High Fall and Rise-Fall-Rise by Fall-Rise without making nonsense of the utterance.

According to D. Crystal, there are nine ways of saying Yes as an answer to the question Will you marry me?

1.Low fall. The most neutral tone; a detached, unemotional statement of fact.

2.Full fall. Emotionally involved; the higher the onset of the tone, the more involved the speaker; choice of emotion (surprise, excitement, irritation) depends on the speaker's facial expression.

3.Mid fall. Routine, uncommitted comment; detached and unexcited.

4.Low rise. Facial expression important; with a 'happy' face, the tone is sympathetic and friendly; with a 'grim' face, it is guarded and ominous.

5.Full rise. Emotionally involved, often «disbelief or shock, the extent of the emotion depending on the width of the tone.

6.High rise. Mild query or puzzlement; often used in echoing what has just been said.

7.Level. Bored, sarcastic, ironic.

8.Fall-rise. A strongly emotional tone; a straight or 'negative' face conveys uncertainty, doubt, or tentativeness; a positive face conveys encouragement or urgency.

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9. Rise-fall. Strong emotional involvement; depending on the face, the attitude might be delighted, challenging, or complacent.

Two more pitch parameters are pitch ranges and pitch levels. Three pitch ranges are generally distinguished: normal, wide, and narrow. Pitch levels may be high, medium, and low.

Loudness is used in a variety of ways. Gross differences of meaning (such as anger, menace, and excitement) can be conveyed by using an overall loudness level.

The tempo of speech is the third component of intonation. The term tempo implies the rate of the utterance and pausation. The rate of speech can be normal, slow and fast. The parts of the utterance which are particularly important sound slower. Unimportant parts are commonly pronounced at a greater speed than normal.

Any stretch of speech can be split into smaller portions, i.e. phonetic wholes, phrases, intonation groups by means of pauses. By 'pause' here we mean a complete stop of phonation. We may distinguish the following three kinds of pauses:

1.Short pauses which may be used to separate intonation groups within a phrase.

2.Longer pauses which normally manifest the end of the phrase.

3.Very long pauses, which are approximately twice as long as the first type, are used to separate phonetic wholes.

Functionally, there may be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses.

Syntactic pauses separate phonopassages, phrases, and intonation groups. Emphatic pauses serve to make especially prominent certain parts of the utterance. Hesitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain some time to think over what to say next. They may be silent or filled.

Intonation patterns serve to actualize syntagms in oral speech. It may be well to remind you here that the syntagm is a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete. In phonetics actualized syntagms are called intonation groups (sense-groups, tonegroups

The intonation group is a stretch of speech which may have the length of the whole phrase. But the phrase often contains more than one intonation group. The number of intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the degree of semantic importance or emphasis given to various parts of it:

This bed was not' slept, in— ,This be was not' slept in

An additional terminal tone on this bed expresses an emphasis on this bed incontrast to other beds.

Not all stressed syllables are of equal importance. One of the syllables has the greater prominence than the others and forms the nucleus, or focal point of an intonation pattern. Formally the nucleus may be described as a strongly stressed syllable which is generally the last strongly accented syllable of an intonation pattern and which marks a significant change of pitch direction, that is where the pitch goes distinctly up or down. The nuclear tone is the most important part of the intonation pattern without which the latter cannot exist at all. On the other hand an intonation pattern may consist of one syllable which is its nucleus. The tone of a nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the intonation pattern following it which is called the tail. Thus after a falling tone, the rest of the intonation pattern is at a low pitch. After a rising tone the rest of the intonation pattern moves in an upward pitch direction:

ЕҰУ Ф 703-09-12Оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Үшінші басылым

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