3. Пароніми і переклад
Однією з поширених причин неадекватності перекладу лексичних елементів є небажання або неможливість перекладача, особливо недосвідченого, користуватися словником для перевірки своїх здогадок і рішень стосовно перекладу того чи того слова. Досить часто це трапляється у випадку паронімічних слів, тобто слів, дуже подібних за формою, але відмінних за значенням, наприклад, economic «економічний» та economical «економний, ощадливий», temporal «часовий» та temporary «тимчасовий» тощо. Перекладач може прийняти певне слово за його паронім і таким чином буде перекладати останній, а не те слово, що необхідно перекласти. Таке помилково вибране слово називається «малапропізмом».
Всі пароніми можна умовно поділити на афіксальні, коли слова відмінні афіксами (principal «головний» - principle «принцип», tend «тяжіти» -trend «тенденція», adapt «адаптувати, пристосувати» - adopt «приймати»), та кореневі, коли відмінності між словами спостерігаються у корені або основі слова (continual «регулярний» - continuous «тривалий, тяглий», momentary «миттєвий» - momentous «дуже важливий»). Паронімами можуть бути слова не тільки однієї й тієї ж частини мови, а й різних частин мови, а також різні форми одного й того ж слова: polemic «полеміка» - polemical "полемічний», personal «особистий» - personnel «особовий склад», accept «приймати, погоджуватися» - except «крім», thesis «теза» - theses «тези», hypothesis «гіпотеза» - hypotheses «гіпотези».
Навіть носії англійської мови можуть плутати певні подібні за формою слова і тому для попередження помилок укладаються списки і словники паронімів, аби навчити відрізняти паронімічні слова. Перекладачі-початківці повинні знати такі слова. Нижче наводяться деякі англійські пароніми та їхні українські відповідники:
acceptance «прийняття, визнання» — acceptation «прийняте значення слова»
adherence «суворе дотримання» — adhesion «склеювання, злипання»
advance «просування, успіх, прогрес» — advancement «висування» (гіпотези тощо)
advantageous «вигідний, сприятливий» — adventitious «випадковий, незапланований»
to affect «впливати» — to effect «здійснювати»
analogous «аналогічний» — analogical «аналоговий»
assay «випробовування, перевірка» - essay «нарис»
ceremonial «формальний, урочистий» — ceremonious «церемонний»
consequent «наступний» — consequential «важливий»
credible «ймовірний» — creditable «надійний»
definite »певний» — definitive «остаточний; суттєвий»
dependable «надійний» — dependent «залежний»
disposal «передача; розпорядження» — disposition «розташування; тенденція»
effective «дієвий, чинний» — efficient «ефективний»
elaborateness «ретельність» — elaboration «опрацювання»
elemental «стихійний» — elementary «елементарний»
emergence «поява» — emergency «непередбачений випадок»
ensure/insure «гарантувати» — assure «запевнювати»
especially «надто» — specially «спеціально»
euphemism «евфемізм» — euphuism «евфуізм»
except «за виключенням» — accept «приймати» —- excepting «виключаючи»
exceptionable «небездоганний» — exceptional «непересічний»
expedient «доцільний» — expeditious «терміновий»
factious «фракційний» — factitious «штучний» — fictitious «вигаданий»\
fatal «фатальний» — fateful «важливий, вирішальний»
forceful «переконливий» — forcible «примусовий»
formalism «педантичність» — formality «формальність»
historic «історичний (такий, що має історичне значення)» — historical «історичний (такий, що має відношення до історії)»
human «людський» — humane «гуманний»
hypothecate «робити заставу» — hypothesize «висувати гіпотезу»
imaginary «уявний» — imaginative «такий, що характеризується багатою уявою»
impassable «нездоланний» — impossible «неможливий» — impassible «байдужий»
inapt «недоречний» — inept «нечинний»
indiscreet «необачний» — indiscrete «недискретний»
inflammable «вогненебезпечний» — inflammatory «підбурювальний»
judicial «судовий» —judicious «розсудливий»
laudable «кий, що заслуговує на гарне слово» — laudatory «такий, що вихваляє»
lay «класти» — lie «лежати»
legislation «законодавство» — legislature «законодавчий орган»
major «головний» — mayor «мер»
masterful «впевнений» — masterly «майстерний»
opacity «неясність» — opaqueness «непрозорість»
parricide «зрада батьківщині» — patricide «батьковбивство»
partisan «партійний» — partizan «партизан»
passable «задовільний» — passible «чутливий» — possible «можливий»
pendant «додаток» — pendent «невирішений» — pending «незавершений»
phantasm «ілюзія» — phantom «видіння»
policy «політика» — polity «форма правління»
practical «практичний» — practicable «здійсненний»
professorate «посада професора» — professoriate «професорський склад»
progress «прогрес» — progression «просування, рух»
purport «смисл, зміст» — purpose «мета»
qualitative «якісний» — quantitative «кількісний»
quite «досить, доволі» — quiet «тихий, спокійний»
raise «піднімати, підносити» — arise «підніматися»
receipt «отримання»—recipe «рецепт»—recipient «отримувач»
reflective «мислячий» — reflexive «зворотний»
resort «рятівний засіб» — resource «ресурс» — recourse «звернення за допомогою»
reversal «повна зміна» — reversion «обернення»
sensible «розумний» — sensitive «вразливий» — sensual «чуттєвий» — sensuous «емоційний»
shade «відтінок» — shadow «тінь»
signal «сигнал» — single «єдиний»
soluble «розчинний» — solvable «що може бути вирішений»
specific «конкретний» — special «спеціальний»
Завдання 1 Визначте перекладні відповідники наступних паронімів: access - excess, advantage - vantage, except - accept, uninterested - disinterested, instance - instant, revert - reverse, reversion - reversal, antithesis -antitheses, sensorial - sensual, abasement - abashment, raise - rise, rash - rush, back-shift - backshaft, perspective - prospective, abate - abide, dependant - dependent.
Завдання 2 Перекладіть речення, попередньо визначивши пароні-мічні слова:
la) Information theory measures information. It also investigates the efficient use of information media, lb) A successful artificial heart also requires efficient regulatory mechanisms, lc) In some cases, existing equipment must be replaced completely with more efficient new systems. 1d) The mining industry helps conservation by finding more efficient ways to mine natural resources and less wasteful ways of turning them into raw materials.
2a)Among the functional groups that have been identified are learning, social, therapy, problem-solving, political action, and worship groups. Given the variety of functions, effective participation in groups requires a variety of skills. In family and therapy groups, for example, people must be effective in empathizing with others. In learning groups, however, people must have the wide array of skills needed for sending and receiving informative messages. 2b) Ionizing radiation has been effective in the treatment of some types of cancer. 2c) The way animals generate electricity by oxidizing organic fuels has prompted efforts to develop equally effective fuel cells. 2d) Mechanical methods of insect control often primitive and time-consuming are generally less effective than chemical methods. Temperature control is sometimes effective against insects that infest enclosed storage facilities.
3 a) In each of the two temporal bones are three tiny bones of the middle ear — the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup) which are capable of making extremely fine movements . The hyoid is a U-shaped bone. 3b) Below the frontal and parietal lobes is the temporal lobe, which is involved with hearing and memory. Behind the temporal lobe is the occipital lobe, the visual center of the brain. 3c) According to Zeno it is a mistake to regard health, wealth, success, or any other temporary condition as a cause for happiness. Only virtue is good, and vice is evil. 3d) A mechanical heart-assist device can act as a temporary substitute for the natural heart while patients wait for heart transplants.
4a) As plants take these nutrients out of the soil solution, many are replaced by the continual release of minerals from the breakdown of parent material. 4b) Continual improvement over the years established the 35-mm camera, especially in its single-lens reflex form, as the dominant camera for both professionals and serious amateurs. 4c) Continuous casting of steel produces an endless length of steel, which, while still hot, may be cut into long blooms or slabs that are ready for shaping in rolling mills. 4d) One of the best devices for continuous detection and tracking of hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and other severe storms at distances up to 250 miles is radar.
5a) Instantaneous ignition of the explosive air-fuel mixture in each cylinder of the engine requires a strong, hot electric spark. This spark is caused by a momentary surge of high voltage, which may reach 20,000 to 25,000 volts. 5b) This tightly organized molecular arrangement is so stable that it tenaciously resists disruption. Even when disrupted by strong forces, it tries to reseal any momentary holes to keep a continuous surface. Only membrane proteins, however, are designed for membrane service. 5c) With the rise of Darwinism and the theory of evolution, archaeology underwent a momentous change. 5d) Passed by Congress in 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act has been called the most momentous piece of legislation in the United States before the American Civil War.
6a) A dormant volcano, while currently inactive, has erupted within historic times and is likely to do so in the future. An inactive volcano is one that has not been known to erupt within historic times. Such classification is arbitrary, however, since almost any volcano is capable of erupting again. 6b) Many historic scientific breakthroughs have been presented to the scientific community at such conferences. 6c) Such information was gathered through the recording of life histories and folklore, and then connecting these details with archaeological and historical data. Boas also believed that similarities among different cultures were the result of similar outside influences rather than to the similarity in thought processes or to any universal laws of development. He stressed the importance of analyzing a culture within its historical context. 6d) Other historical novels merely use the trappings of history as superficial decoration, much as in a costume ball but the historical events themselves are relegated to the background. In the foreground are characters and plot, and both could be from any period of the past or even the present.
7a) Neutrons have no charge. The number of neutrons can vary in atoms of the same element. Such variations do not affect the electrons or the atomic number. They affect the chemical properties slightly and also affect the weight of the nucleus and therefore of the atom. Atoms of the same element that vary in weight are called isotopes. 7b) Instruments must be small enough that the sensing element itself does not adversely affect the quantity that is to be measured. If, for instance, a small current in an electronic circuit is to be measured, one cannot use a device that itself requires a significant amount of current to operate, because the instrument current affects the measurement and distorts the desired reading. 7c) In addition, because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, the slight change in gravitational field has some small effects on the flight path over very long distances. These geoballistic effects are especially important with long-range guided missiles and spacecraft. 7d) The amount of shift reveals the speed of the star's motion; but since light in a vacuum travels at the tremendous speed of 186,282 miles per second (299,743 kilometers per second), the star must be traveling at a very great speed to create a noticeable effect.
8a) American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), national society of American scientists founded 1848 in Boston at meeting of geologists and naturalists; now includes all major fields of science; seeks to further work of scientists and improve effectiveness of science in promotion of human welfare; conducts seminars. 8b) Advances in chemistry during the latter half of the 19th century demanded that small-scale laboratories be extended to large-scale production, opening the way for the chemical engineer.
9a) A controversy revolves around basic, or pure, biology and how it relates to applied, or practical, biology. The former is represented by studies for which no immediate practical value is apparent. 9b) This distribution of funds has been criticized by some for creating an imbalance in inventive activity and for being directed toward practical applications rather than basic knowledge. 9c) In 1840 Friedrich Keller, a German, was the first to find a commercially practicable way to produce paper from wood through mechanical grinding. 9d) Improved gunsights, new spotting techniques, and range finders made long-range gunnery practicable. 9e) In 1846 these two innovations were combined in a machine built by Elias Howe of Massachusetts. This was the first really practicable sewing machine, but it could sew only straight seams of limited length.
10a) The central strand of development in these years, however, is cognitive. It is the development of toddlers' thought processes that interact with all the other developments to produce sensible children out of the toddlers many parents label. 10b) In 1948, two Americans conceived of a type of electrostatic printing in which the coloring agent is not ink but a powder that is sensitive to the pull of an electric charge induced on a plate
11 a) Virtually all fax machines use a light-sensitive device to scan the original, one elemental area at a time, and represent the shade or tone of each area by a specified amount of electric current. The current is transmitted as a signal over telephone lines or via microwave relay to a receiver that reproduces an image of the elemental area by means of photographic, electricity-sensitive, or heat-sensitive paper. 11b) For example, the atom of an intrinsic semiconductor such as elemental silicon has four electrons in its outermost shell. 11c) In the most modern description of strong interaction physics, the protons, neutrons, and mesons are not elementary constituents but are composites of objects known as quarks. 11d) The study of the various elementary particles themselves is divided into baryon and meson spectroscopy, and elementary-particle spectrometers are used for such studies.
12a) The transaction can be as simple as buying a candy bar in a grocery store or as complicated as buying real estate. All such transfers are called exchanges. In some cases it is an easy exchange of money for a product. In other cases such as buying an automobile or a home there are more intricate legal formalities. 12b) The term revivalism is most commonly associated with religious movements. It means alive again that is, breathing new life into an organization that has become stagnant because of adherence to formalism and tradition. It is against this natural conservatism that revivalism reacts.
13a) In 1950, the British mathematician and computer pioneer Alan Turing declared that one day there would be a machine that could duplicate human intelligence in every way and prove it by passing a specialized test. In this test, a computer and a human hidden from view would be asked random identical questions. 13b) Although many companies still use animals to perform initial drag studies, public pressure from animal rights advocates has led some cosmetic and pharmaceutical manufacturers to abandon the use of animals in favor of more humane alternatives, such as tissue cultures and computer models.
14a) Through judicial review the Supreme Court has become the primary interpreter of the Constitution. 14b) In a book published in 1869, Galton had used studies of the families of important men to show that would be quite practical to produce a highly gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several successive generations. 14c) There are three organs of government in the constitution: the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. The judiciary determines common law and also interprets statutes.
15a) Air motors do not become hot when overloaded and can stand repeated stalling and rapid reversals without damage. 15b) Genetics has modified the theory of progressive evolution somewhat, because it has been shown by experiment that there may be genetic reversals that is, reversions back to traits and characteristics thought to be discarded in the hereditary process.
16a) In the late 1970s to mid-1980s its center in the United States was Yale University, where proponents Harold Bloom, J. Hillis Miller, Paul de Man, and Geoffrey Hartman, among others, taught; grounded in theories of language, deconstructors are not interested in providing a single, definitive interpretation of a text, rather they are concerned with breaking down traditional structures of language to allow for the free play of its elements. 16b) These two methods work fairly well when dealing with a definite and limited population whose total number is known.
17a) The applications of electron diffraction, on the other hand, are analogous to the use of X rays for studying the structure of matter. 17b) Cognitive science centers mainly on higher-order processes such as causal reasoning, planning, and analogical mapping.
18a) The actual color sensation that is produced by an object is determined by a combination of the composition of the incident light and the object's reflective properties. 18b) Reflexive verbs can be found in any language.
19a) The nitrate, the chloride, and the bromide are soluble in water but not in concentrated solutions of the corresponding acids. 19b) In general, it is difficult to tell whether a given Diophantine equation is solvable.
20a) In the 1870s, iron construction gained acceptance and masts and sails were gradually abandoned as steam power became more dependable and efficient. 20b) Institutionalization is the placing of certain dependent populations into facilities that are designed to either care for them, rehabilitate them, or merely remove them from the larger society.
21a) The United States Post Office established a creditable airmail service in 1918, first between New York and Washington, and then, in 1920, from coast to coast. 21b) Prosecutors are often willing to accept plea bargaining, particularly when the case against a defendant rests on weak evidence or less than credible witnesses, and a trial may therefore result in an acquittal.
22a) In a similar way, the mathematization of nature and the emergence of experimental science would have been inconceivable without the invention of a variety of instruments—including the telescope, the microscope, time- keeping devices, thermometers, and the air pump—which allowed large numbers of people to cany out the observations, measurements, and experiments upon which scientific theories were constructed. 22b) Such systems are collectively known as emergency core cooling systems, or ECCSs. 22c) The high speed of jet aircraft necessitated the development of a high-speed method of abandoning a plane in an emergency.
23a) A transformation of comparable significance began in the middle of the 20th century with the emergence of science-intensive industries, which were based on chemistry, modern physics, and especially mathematics. 23b) During the first three decades or so of the 20th century, the convention of illustrating new adult fiction lessened nearly to extinction. Notable exceptions have been specially printed and bound first editions that contain specially commissioned artwork, such as those published by the Franklin Library (Pa.) beginning in the mid-1970s.
24a) Although intent to restrain is essential to this tort, motive is irrelevant. Locking a drank in a closet to prevent him or her from driving home would constitute false imprisonment, regardless of the laudable motive. 24b) Skaldic literature, from the old Norse skald, meaning "poet," is that medieval Icelandic poetry which is not heroic or mythical. It includes all the incidental verse found in the Icelandic saga, as well as the long laudatory poems - drapur - in honor of rulers.
25a) He was uninterested in relationships of form and color but sought to convey basic human emotions—fear, ecstasy, dread,—by isolating the viewer before an amorphous image conducive to meditation. 25b) However, what began as an association of like-minded private individuals had become a large-scale industry by the beginning of the 19th century; science would no longer be the disinterested study it had hitherto been, but a matter of national importance, glory, and profit.
26a) Walther Bothe (1891-1957)is a corecipient of 1954 Nobel prize for invention of new method of detecting subatomic particles and consequent discoveries, which played critical role in establishing particle nature of electromagnetic radiation and in discovery of neutron. 26b) There are no full statistics about the extent of computer crime. Victims often resist reporting suspected cases, because they can lose more from the embarrassment, lost reputation, litigation, and other consequential losses than from the acts themselves. 26c) The birth of the methods of coordinate geometry and the consequent growth of the methods of the calculus characterize the transition from classical mathematics to a new era in mathematics.