viii • Contents
The Hellenistic Realignment of Positions						103
The Roman Base and the Second Realignment							109
The Stimulus of Religious Polarization						119
The Showdown of Christianity versus the Pagan United
Front		123
Two Kinds of Creativity				131
		COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF
	INTELLECTUAL COMMUNITIES

			Part I: Asian Paths
4 Innovation by Opposition: Ancient China							137
The Sequence of Oppositions in Ancient China							137
Centralization in the Han Dynasty: The Forming of Ofﬁcial
Confucianism and Its Opposition					153
The Changing Landscape of External Supports							158
The Gentry-Ofﬁcial Culture: The Pure Conversation
Movement and the Dark Learning					168
Class Culture and the Freezing of Creativity in Indigenous
Chinese Philosophy				174
5 External and Internal Politics of the Intellectual
World: India							177
Sociopolitical Bases of Religious Ascendancies							178
Religious Bases of Philosophical Factions: Divisions and
Recombination of Vedic Ritualists					193
The Crowded Competition of the Sages						195
Monastic Movements and the Ideal of Meditative
Mysticism			200
Anti-monastic Opposition and the Forming of Hindu Lay
Culture		208
Partitioning the Intellectual Attention Space 213
The Buddhist-Hindu Watershed 224
The Post-Buddhist Resettlement of Intellectual
Territories			255
Scholasticism and Syncretism in the Decline of Hindu
Philosophy			268

				Contents • ix
6 Revolutions of the Organizational Base:
Buddhist and Neo-Confucian China				272
Buddhism and the Organizational Transformation of
Medieval China	274
Intellectual Foreign Relations of Buddhism, Taoism, and
Confucianism 279
Creative Philosophies in Chinese Buddhism				281
The Ch’an (Zen) Revolution		290
The Neo-Confucian Revival		299
The Weak Continuity of Chinese Metaphysics 316
7 Innovation through Conservatism: Japan				322
Japan as Transformer of Chinese Buddhism				326
The Inﬂation of Zen Enlightenment and the
Scholasticization of Koan		341
Tokugawa as a Modernizing Society			347
The Divergence of Secularist Naturalism and
Neoconservatism	361
Conservatism and Intellectual Creativity 367
The Myth of the Opening of Japan			369
Conclusions to Part I:
The Ingredients of Intellectual Life				379

COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF

INTELLECTUAL COMMUNITIES

Part II: Western Paths

8 Tensions of Indigenous and Imported Ideas:

Islam, Judaism, Christendom	387
Philosophy within a Religious Context	388
The Muslim World: An Intellectual Community Anchored
by a Politicized Religion 392
Four Factions 395
Realignment of Factions in the 900s	407
The Culmination of the Philosophical Networks: Ibn Sina
and al-Ghazali 417
Routinization of Suﬁs and Scholastics	423

Spain as the Hinge of Medieval Philosophy 428

Coda: Are Idea Imports a Substitute for Creativity? 446

x • Contents

9 Academic Expansion as a Two-Edged Sword:
Medieval Christendom								451
The Organizational Bases of Christian Thought							455
The Inner Autonomy of the University					463
The Breakup of Theological Philosophy						485
Intellectuals as Courtiers: The Humanists						497
The Question of Intellectual Stagnation						501
Coda: The Intellectual Demoralization of the Late
Twentieth Century		521
10 Cross-Breeding Networks and
Rapid-Discovery Science								523
A Cascade of Creative Circles				526
Philosophical Connections of the Scientiﬁc Revolution 532
Three Revolutions and Their Networks						556
The Mathematicians		557
The Scientiﬁc Revolution			559
The Philosophical Revolution: Bacon and Descartes								562
11 Secularization and Philosophical
Meta-territoriality								570
Secularization of the Intellectual Base					573
Geopolitics and Cleavages within Catholicism							574
Reemergence of the Metaphysical Field						587
Jewish Millennialism and Spinoza’s Religion of
Reason 589
Leibniz’s Mathematical Metaphysics					591
Rival Philosophies upon the Space of Religious
Toleration	594
Deism and the Independence of Value Theory							600
The Reversal of Alliances			603
Anti-modernist Modernism and the Anti-scientiﬁc
Opposition	609
The Triumph of Epistemology				613
12 Intellectuals Take Control of Their Base:
The German University Revolution								618
The German Idealist Movement				622
Philosophy Captures the University 638
Idealism as Ideology of the University Revolution								650
Political Crisis as the Outer Layer of Causality							661
The Spread of the University Revolution						663

Contents • xi

13 The Post-revolutionary Condition: Boundaries as

Philosophical Puzzles	688
Meta-territories upon the Science-Philosophy Border 694
The Social Invention of Higher Mathematics 697
The Logicism of Russell and Wittgenstein	709
The Vienna Circle as a Nexus of Struggles	717
The Ordinary Language Reaction against Logical
Formalism 731

Wittgenstein’s Tortured Path 734

From Mathematical Foundations Crisis to Husserl’s

Phenomenology 737

Heidegger: Catholic Anti-modernism Intersects the

Phenomenological Movement 743
Division of the Phenomenological Movement	748
The Ideology of the Continental-Anglo Split	751

14	Writers’ Markets and Academic Networks:
	The French Connection	754
	The Secularization Struggle and French Popular
	Philosophy 757
	Existentialists as Literary-Academic Hybrids	764
	Envoi: Into the Fog of the Present 782
	META-REFLECTIONS
15	Sequence and Branch in the Social Production
	of Ideas	787

The Continuum of Abstraction and Reﬂexivity 787

Three Pathways: Cosmological, Epistemological-

Metaphysical, Mathematical 800

The Future of Philosophy 856

Epilogue: Sociological Realism	858
The Sociological Cogito 858
Mathematics as Communicative Operations	862

The Objects of Rapid-Discovery Science 870

Why Should Intellectual Networks Undermine

Themselves? 875

xii • Contents
Appendices
1.	The Clustering of Contemporaneous Creativity		883
2.	The Incompleteness of Our Historical Picture		890
3.	Keys to Figures	893
Notes 947
References 1035
Index of Persons		1069
Index of Subjects		1089

Figures, Maps, and Tables

FIGURES

2.1 Network of Chinese Philosophers, 400–200 b.c.e.

2.2Network of Greek Philosophers from Socrates to

Chrysippus

3.1Forming the Network of Greek Philosophers,

600–465 b.c.e.

3.2Centralization of the Greek Network in Athens,

465–365 b.c.e.

3.3Organized Schools of Greek Philosophy,

600 b.c.e.–100 c.e.

3.4Proliferation and Recombination of the Greek

Schools, 400–200 b.c.e.

3.5Realignment of Schools in the Roman Conquest,

	200 b.c.e.–1 c.e.	110
3.6	Syncretisms and Skepticism, 1–200 c.e.	117
3.7	Showdown of Neoplatonists and Christians, 200–400	124
3.8	Neoplatonists under Christian Triumph, 400–600	130

4.1Emergence of Chinese Network, 500–365 b.c.e.:

Rival Confucian Lineages, Mohists, Primitivists	139
4.2 Intersecting Centers of the Warring States,
365–200 b.c.e.	144

4.3Han Dynasty Transition and Forming of Ofﬁcial

Confucianism, 235 b.c.e.–100 c.e.

159

4.4Later Han Dynasty Disintegration and the Dark

Learning, 100–300 c.e.

170

5.1Indian Network, 800–400 b.c.e.: The Founding

	Rivalries	201
5.2	India, 400 b.c.e.– 400 c.e.: Age of Anonymous Texts	210
5.3	Lineages of Buddhist Sects, 400 b.c.e.–900 c.e.	214
5.4	Conﬂict of Buddhist and Hindu Schools, 400–900 c.e.	225

xiv • Figures, Maps, and Tables

5.5Hindu Oppositions, 900–1500: Nyaya Realists,

Advaita Idealists, Vaishnava Dualists

258

6.1Taoist Church and Imported Buddhist Schools,

	300–500	284
6.2	T’ien-t’ai, Yogacara, Hua-yen, 500–800	287
6.3	Cascade of Ch’an (Zen) Schools, 635–935	294

6.4Neo-Confucian Movement and the Winnowing of

Zen, 935–1265

300

6.5Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Idealist

Movement, 1435–1565

315

7.1Network of Japanese Philosophers, 600–1100:

	Founding of Tendai and Shingon	328
7.2	Expansion of Pure Land and Zen, 1100–1400	334
7.3	Zen Artists and Tea Masters, 1400–1600	340

7.4Tokugawa Confucian and National Learning Schools,

	1600–1835	351
7.5	Meiji Westernizers and the Kyoto School, 1835–1935	373
8.1	Islamic and Jewish Philosophers and Scientists,
	700–935: Basra and Baghdad Schools	396

8.2AshÀarites, Greek Falasifa, and the Syntheses of Ibn

	Sina and al-Ghazali, 935–1100	409
8.3	Mystics, Scientists, and Logicians, 1100–1400	424
8.4	Islamic and Jewish Philosophers in Spain, 900–1065	435
8.5	Spain, 1065–1235: The Hinge of the Hinge	438
9.1	Islamic Factions and Combinations	452
9.2	Proliferation of Cistercian Monasteries, 1098–1500	457
9.3	Christian Philosophers, 1000–1200: Forming the
	Argumentative Network	464
9.4	Franciscan and Dominican Rivalries, 1200–1335	470

9.5Jewish Philosophers within Christendom, 1135–1535:

	Maimonidists, Averroists, and Kabbalists	478
9.6	Scholastics, Mystics, Humanists, 1335–1465	489
9.7	Reformers, Metaphysicians, Skeptics, 1465–1600	498

10.1European Network: The Cascade of Circles,

1600–1735

527

10.2Network Overlap of Greek Mathematicians and

Philosophers, 600 b.c.e.–600 c.e.

544

11.1French and British Network during the

Enlightenment, 1735–1800

607

12.1German Network, 1735–1835: Berlin-Königsberg and

Jena-Weimar

624

12.2Network of American Philosophers, 1800–1935:

German Imports, Idealists, Pragmatists

673

Figures, Maps, and Tables • xv

13.1German Network, 1835–1900: Neo-Kantians,

Historicists, Positivists, Psychologists

690

13.2British Philosophers and Mathematicians, 1800–1935: University Reform, Idealist Movement,

Trinity-Bloomsbury Circle

710

13.3Realignment of the Networks in the Generation

	of 1900	718
13.4	Neo-Kantians and the Vienna Circle	720
13.5	Physicists’ Methodological Controversies	723
13.6	Network of Mathematical Logic and Foundations	726
13.7	Vienna Circle: Composite Network	728

13.8Network of Phenomenologists and Existentialists,

1865–1965	740
14.1 Network of French Philosophers, 1765–1935	759

14.2Young Hegelians and Religious/Political Radicals,

1835–1900: Die Freien and the Nihilists	766
E.1 Sung Dynasty Celestial Element Algebra	864
MAPS
Philosophical Schools in the Mediterranean Region	84
Intellectual Centers in the Warring States, 350 b.c.e.	142
Han Dynasty, 200 b.c.e.–200 c.e.	153
Second Period of Division, 250 c.e.	161
Ganges States, 500 b.c.e.	179
Height of Maurya Empire, 250 b.c.e.	181
Balance of Power, 150 c.e.	183
Gupta Empire, 400 c.e.	185
Eve of Mogul Invasion, 1525	192
Principal Chinese Buddhist Monasteries	282
Intellectual and Religious Centers of Japan	330
Height of the ‘Abbasid Caliphate, 800 c.e.	393
Cathedral Schools of Northern France, 1100 c.e.	514
Geopolitical Crisis of the Spanish-Habsburg Empire, 1559	576
German Universities, 1348–1900	648
TABLES
2.1 Distribution of Philosophers for All Networks	77
9.1 University Foundations and Failures, 1000–1600	517

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1	Coalitions in the Mind		19
	General Theory of Interaction Rituals		20
	The Interaction Rituals of Intellectuals		24
	The Opportunity Structure	37
	The Sociology of Thinking	46
2	Networks across the Generations		54
	The Rarity of Major Creativity 54

in China and Greece	64
The Importance of Personal Ties 68
The Structural Crunch	74

3 Partitioning Attention Space:
The Case of Ancient Greece	80
The Intellectual Law of Small Numbers	81