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22. The Phrase as a basic syntactic unit.

Phrase’s definition is problematic.

Traditionally phrase is a combination of 2 or more words.

Problem – whether a phrase is a combination of any 2 words (notional or structural, as it’s considered in traditional grammar) OR whether it’s a combination of notional words only.

Traditional Classification:

  • Syntactically: predicative, subordinate, coordinate

  • Morphologically: noun-phrase, verb-phrase

  • Structurally: simple, complex

  • Means of syntactic subordination: agreement, government, adjoinment, enclosure

Problem of predicative phrases.Traditionally they’re recognized,but some scholars don’t ecognize them.Ex. Шахматов doesn’t recognize them,says that they’re not phrases but sentences.

23. Subordinate and coordinate phrases.

Coordination and subordination are the 2 main structural types of phrases.These terms indicate syntactic relations between phrase components.

Coordinate phrases consist of 2 or more constituents which are syntactically equial.

Subordinate phrases include 2 components which are syntactically unequial.they fall into different subtypes:

  • according to the structure they’re simple phrases – include 2 main components; - and complex – the components of which are expanded or extended

  • morphologically they’re divided into: verb,adj.,adv.,prep., and noun phrases.

  • the phrases are divided into continuous and discontinuous.

  • grammatically they’re agreement,government,adjoinment,enclosure.

Government (not widely used) – the use of a certain form of an agent is required by the head.In modern English we speak about: prep,verbal,nominal government.

Adjoinment – widely used,can be defined negatively as absence of any formal sign of dependence.the head and adjunct are joined by their lexical meaning and syntactic position (ex. Come quickly)

Enclosure (term was introduced by Ильиш) – placing of a phrase-element between 2 parts of another element.

Agreement – when head and adjunct agree in certain grammatical categories.

24. Phrases in Russian Linguistics.

Burlakova:

  • Kernell phrases - one element dominating all the other constituents. The kernel – is the element within the group whose syntactic function can’t be identified at the level of analysis in terms of sentence-parts Kernel phrases are divided into regressive and progressive. In regressive kernel structures an agent stands in preposition to the kernel (ex. So quickly. So – a kernel,quickly – a head).I progressive kernel structures – the agent stands in postposition to the kernel(ex. A girl of 16. A girl – a kernel)

  • Non-kernell phrases - are traditionally coordinate phrases,when there isn’t any component of the phrase, whose syntactic phrases we can’t define. Are devided into: Dependent (can’t be identified as grammatical units without any context. (ex. soft sweet sensible)) and Independent (when syntactic functions of grammatical units can be defined without any additional context (ex. Ladies and gentlemen!).

  1. Unipicked - phrases only 1 component can establish syntactic relations with the elements of a higher level (noun, adjectival, verb)

Multipicked - 2 or more elements can do so. Multipicred phrases are predicative phrases with primary and secondary predications.

Barkhudarov: classification is based on the structure of phrases:

  • Elementary – if there is only 1 type of syntactic relation between its constituents

  • Compound - if there’s more than 1 type of syntactic connection between its constituents

Blokh:

  • equipollent phrases – they’re made up of words related to one another to an equial rank

  • dominational – when syntactically 1 components dominates. The can be: Bilateral (the subject dominates the predicate,determining the person; and the predicate dominates the subject,determining the event of predication)and monolateral (one way domination)

25. Phrases in foreign linguistics.

Jespersen:

  • Junction - indicates attributive relations between words (ex. A silly man)

  • Nexus - indicates predicative relations (ex. The dog barks).Nexus divided into independent and dependent. Nexus is independent when he gives a complete bit of information

Bloomfield:

  • Endocentric (belong to the same form-class as 1 or more of their constituents (ex. Poor John)) Are divided into -ordinate (serial) and subordinate (attributive)

  • Exocentric (are don’t (ex. Beside John).)

Whitehall:

  • Headed

  • Non-headed

26.Types of Syntactic Relation between subordinate phrase components.

3 types of syntactic relations within word-groups: subordination, coordination, interdependence. Accordingly, phrases are usually classified into subordinate, coordinate and predicative. Sometimes a fourth type, appositive phrases, is mentioned.

H.Sweet: the most general type of relation is that of the modifier and modified (headword and adjunct), or the relation of subordination. He also distinguished the relation of coordination

O.Jespersen. The theory of three ranks is based on the principle of determination. In the word-group a furiously3 barking2 dog1 1 is independent and is called a primary, 2 modifies 1 and is called a secondary, 3 modifies 2 and is called a tertiary. A secondary may be joined to a primary in two ways: junction and nexus. These terms are used to differentiate between attributive and predicative relations (relations between the subject and the predicate),

Subordinated phrases are divided according to:

a) their structure (simple or complex);

b) types of subordinate relations (predicative, attributive, objective, adverbial phrases);

c) the position of the adjunct in the phrases (before the kernel (prepositional phrases) or after the kernel (postpositional phrases, e.g.: a woman of character);

d) manner of subordination (phrases with agreement, government or adjoining, enclosure);

e) morphological nature of the kernel – noun, verbal, adjectival and adverbial phrases.

Blokh’s types of syntactical relation:

  1. Equipotent type (равнопотенциальный )- syntactically equal connection of words type of syntactical relation

  2. Dominational (or subordinational) type (см. выше)

Monolateral - realized in the attributive, objective and adverbial connections.

Objective connection reflects the relation of the object to the process, and subdivided into non-prepositional (actualized by word-order) and prepositional, e.g.:

1) He regretted the event;

2) I forget about the event.

From the semantico-syntactic point of view objective connections are classed as direct and indirect (or oblique). Direct object constructions reflect immediate transition of the action to the object. Indirect (oblique) object constructions reflect the indirect relation of the object to the process, e.g.:

1) Will you give me the book (direct object)?

2) He ran up to the house.

Attributive connection unites a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective or a noun, e.g.: a nice picture, a woman of means, a man of his word.

Adverbial connection can be of two types:

Primary- V+ adverbial modifiers, e.g.: to come late; to do (smth.) with enthusiasm

Secondary- non-verbal head word (quality) + its adverbial modifiers, e.g.: no longer attractive (head word),appallingly alike (head word).

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