Гос филология / Гос филология / 33. classification of SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS

SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS

Let’s agree to accept standart English as a literary standart. In syntax, most regular and current is the common two-member s-ce, containg subject and predicate, and some second elemements as well. The order of w-ds is fixed. The function of the s-ce is consistant with its structure. A declarative s-ce expresses a statement, not a question. Nothing is missing or redundant.

Any kind of deviation from regular standart synt. str-re, aimed at producing a stylistic effect, is a syntactical expressive means. All styl-ly relevant synt. means may be classified into (Кузнецов, Скребнев):

1. The SEM based on the absence of logically necessary elements: ellipses, one-member s-ces, aposiopesis, apokoinou. This group is based on the principle (Мартине) of economy of synt.means (the law of the least effort).

2. The SEM based on the presense of extra elements: repetition, polysyndeton, synt.totology, paranthesis.

These 2 groups are singled out from the view point of qualitative char-cs of the synt.str-re

3. The SEM based on the unusual arrangement of synt.elements: inversion. This group is singled out with regard to the distr-re of the elements.

4. The SEM based on the interplay of the appointing s-ces and phrases: parallel constructions, chiasmus

5. The SEM based on the pecularities of connections/connectives: detachment, parcellation, coordination instead of subordination, gap-s-ce link

6.Synt.str-res with some change in their semantic function (shifts in the semantic m-ng): rhetorical questions, quasi-negative, quasi-interrogative, quasi-imperative statements.

1) The SEM based on the absence of logically necessary elements:

Ellipsis is the deliborate omission of one or more elements in a s-ce (especially, primary parts) for definite stylistic purposes.

Ex. The ride did Ma good. Rested her.

Ellipsis is a common feature of the oral part of speech. It’s a norm for colloquial style

Ex. Glad to see you!

It’s also used in encyclopedic and reference books, in newspapre announcements, telegr.messages, telexes, etc. (“In Chancery”). They are widely used in military commands. In lit-re it’s used in speech char-n, reflecting the natural str-re of life speech (“Understand?”).

E. is a frequent device in represented speech. Functions:

- creates bravity, laconism, dynamism

- It gives prominence and emotional tension to the narration,

- creates a quick tempo,

- creates a sense of immidiacy and local colour

- conveys the mood of the ch-re or narrator

One-member s-ces are s-ces with one synt. centre, expressed by the substantive.

Noun-s-ces possess great expressive potential; because noun, used as a principle part, unites the image of an object and the idea of its real existance. They may be used to present the background of the action. They often open the narration, introducing the reader into the situation.

OMS may be used in static description in exposition (Sunrise.) They may often create a cinematographical effect, where general panorama is followed by blow ups (Ночь. Улица. Фонарь…). Chains of noun-s-ces are often resorted to convey a rapid succession of phenomena to create an impression of movement (Me.). OMS may be used to create represented speech. Sometimes they are a kind of a bridge b/w the author’s narration and the char-er’s thought (“Bliss” by J.Mansfield). OMS are widely used in stage directions, especially in opening remarks serving the same purpose as expositions of novels or stories.

The functions of noun-s-ces:

- their laconic ch-re helps to focus the reader’s attention on what is important

- they help see things, stir our imagination, call visual pictures

- may create application, convey additional m-ng

- highten the emotional tension and reveal the narrator’s attitudeto what’s said

Aposiopesis (breaking-the-narrative, stop short s-ce, pull-up s-ce) is a breaking off in speech, leaving the s-ce unfinished, incomplete, both logically and stylistically.

Ex. You’re going – or else.; It depends, you know.

The reasons that bring about the break in the narrative:

• the resistance to finish the s-ce, unwillingness to proceed for some reasons

• the uncertainty or hesitation as to what should be said

• some strong emotion

• that supposition that what remains to be said is understood from what has been said. It’s marked by suspension mark (...) or many dots.

A. is a typical feature of arol speech and is widely used in represented speech (“Forsyte Saga”)

Functions:

- conveys a great tension (If police come – find me...)

- may express attitude to what is said

- often creates implication

- may land the nar-n certain psycological tension (E.Voe “If everyone at 20 realized that half of his life was to be lived after 40...)

Apokoinou (от общего) is the blending of two s-ces through a common w-d, which has two synt. functions, one for each of the blended s-ces

Ex. It was he told me about it. There was a door led to the kitchen.

The w-d common for both s-ces is often a predicative in the first and subject – in the second. This construction was widely used in Old and Middle English. Nowadays it’s not correct and rarely occurs in the author’s narration. It may occur in poetic or elevated style and then is perceived as an archaic element

Ex. I bring him nens will raise his drooping spirits

Functions:

- helps to char-ze a person through his speech: hurried, careless

- may be percieved as an archaic element

The 1^st group of SEM has one feature in common. The device is to create an effect of bravity, laconism, dynamism.

2)The SEM based on the presense of extra elements in contrast with the 1^st group is based on redundancy

Asyndeton is the connection of s-ces, phrases or w-ds without any conjunctions.

Ex. People sang. People cried. People fought...

Functions:

- helps to make each phrase sound independant and significant

- creates an effect that the enumeration is not completed

- creates a certain rhythmical effect, measured and energetic, retardation

- the absence of conj-n lends an utterense an empertuous note

- may give a rise to dynamic tension

- increases emotional colouring

Repetition. It’s hard to everestimate the significance value and importance of R. in art. It acquires harmony.

R. is the reiteration of some l-ge elements, which serves to emphasize, to acieve a harmonious presentation of ideas

Ex. Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a white, white sea (Callridge)

R. possesses considerable emotional force. The element repeated attracts the reader’s attention. It emparts additional m-ng (Scroodge went to bed again. And though it over and over and over - shows the durability).

R. may express iconically the durability or repeated action. So, it’s not only a repeated word, which may be repeated, but w-d-combinations, full s-ces, too. The repeated w-ds and s-ces may change their places (“Seam and gusset and band, band and gusset and seam, till over the butters I fall asleep and saw them on in a dream” – Th.Hood)

Traditionally rhetorics distinguishes 2 categories of verbal repetition:

- immediate repetition (come away, come away.)

- intermitant rep-n, when the reapeted iteams are separated by the w-ds

R. is a fundamental device if intensification, of rendering emotions to the narrative

Ex. Oh, my son Epsolop,

My son, my son Epsolop!

Would God I had died for thee

Or Epsolop, my son, my son! (Bible)

Accord. to the position occupied by the repeated unit, we distinguish the foll. types:

- ordinary: no fixed place of the repeated unit

- anaphora – the repetition of the 1^st w-ds of several successful s-ces or phrases

(Sonnet №61): a..., a..., a... .

- epiphora – the repetition of the final w-ds (It’s of ample use in nursary rhymes, ballads

and lumerics. It’s often confused with anticipatory use of personal pronouns)

...a, ...a, ...a:

Ex. Oh, it’s the fine life,

The life of gutter.

She has developed power, this woman – the wife of his (Galsworthy)

- framing: a...a, b...b.

- anadiplosis: ...a, a... .

- chain rep-n: ...a, a...b, b...c, c... .

- morphological rep-n: a morpheme is repeated – humorous effect

Paranthasis – an explanatory or qualifying s-ce, phrase or w-d, which inserted in a longer passage without being gram-ly connected with it. It’s usually marked off by brackets, commas or dashes (And he stirred it with his pain (in vain)). Due to P. the narration is conducted into 2 plains – the succession of events is given and the author’s comments on them.

Functions:

- creates the atmosphere of intimacy, to involve the reader into the act

- makes the speech emotionally coloured, to show the author’s attitude

- creates a humurous effect

Polysyndeton – is the connection of s-ces, phrases or w-ds with any conjunctions.

Ex Red shirts and green shirts and yellow shirts.

Functions:

- creates an atmosphere of bustling activitie (and)

- serves either to stress iqual importance or dif-ce (or)

3)The SEM based on the unusual arrangements of synt.elements:

Inversion. The norm is char-sed by fixed w-d-order. The violation of traditional word-order, which doesn’t utter the denotative m-ng, but gives it an additional emotional or emphatic colouring is called inversion. As a result, a component is placed in an unusual position, acquiring special importance and producing a definite stylistic effect. Due to the I. the displaced element becomes the rheme of the utterance, the most imporatant part of it.

Ex. ... up with which I can’t put

The patterns of I.:

a) predicate is placed before the subject: Came another moment

b) predicative is placed before the subject: Poles apart we were – he and I

c) the object before the predicate and subject: The letter, that had awaited, I kept in my pocket

d) the AM, which usually follows the verb may occupy the innitial place: Angrily I tried to move away

f) the attribute may stand after the verb it modifies:

g) a postpositional element is inverted, often together with the verb: In went the widdle and I took my 2^nd pipe

Functions:

- singles out some important parts

- gives emotional tension

- creates specific melody

- makes the narrative dynamic

- may contribute to a humorous effect

Rhetorical questions present statements in the form of questions. They don’t require any answers, but contain them in themselves

Ex. Do you call this music?

It’s a common device in oratory (Brutan’s and Mark Antonious’s speeches). It’s not an unfrequent device in informal dialogues.

RQ are sometimes called gram. metaphors, because there is an interplay of two structural m-ngs: that of the question and that of the statement (affirmative or negative). Both are realized semaltaniously. There are various things expressed by RQ: from admiration to disguast.

In lit-re, RQ serve dif. purposes, f.ex. emphatical, emotional; sometimes, satyrical or ironic. The form of RQ is often negative.

Functions:

- creates irony

- conveys emotional colouring

Quasi-negative statements.

a)sometimes negative m-ng may be expressed by the use of affirmative s-ces and

phrases containing no negative forms. It’s usually in dialogues (colloquial speech)

Ex. - They’re supposed to find diamonds

- Diamonds – my food! (“Pigmaleon Show”)

b) the use of rhetoric q-ns with affirmative pr-te to imply negative m-ng.

Ex. Did I say a word about the money?

c)The use of isolated subordinate clauses of unreal comparison to create negation

without any negative forms

Ex. As if I ever stoopped thinking of her

d)quasy-neg. exclamatory rhetorative responses may imply negation or denial of the

previous statement.

Ex. I’ve explained, why I did that – Explained! Explained!

Quasi-imperative st-tes. The function of the imperative s-ces may be fullfilled by the use of nouns or noun-phrases (the context is very important here)

Ex. Tea. For two. Out here.

Quasi-interrogative st-tes. Interrogative m-ng may be rendered by a positive statement without the usual inverted word-oder. In this case the s-ce implies the speaker’s assurance of getting the answer he expects or his wish to make the intellocutor talk

Ex.That’s my name. There’s nothing the matter.

All the SEM comprising this group are based on the property of a l-ge unit to do more than one job – to be polyfunctional. Synt. forms are transposed into a sphere, which is not usual for them. They fullfill an uncommon function. It brings about expressiveness and rendering dif. shades of m-ng