Part 4. Types of Terrorism

Warm-up

Discuss the following questions in pairs. Share your ideas with the class.

1. Have you heard about any classifications of terrorism7?

2. What types of terrorism are known to you? Give examples.

Pronunciation

Watch the pronunciation of the following words from the text

1. diverse

2. typology

3. apartheid

4. to disavow

5. prolific

6. anthrax

7. botulism

8. the plague

9. smallpox

10. tularemia

11. hemorrhagic fever

12. to sabotage

13. to disperse

Text 1. “Classifications of Terrorism”

Reading

Read the text and say what types of terrorism are mentioned in the text. Compare the types mentioned in the text with your own list. Are they the same?

Various attempts have been made to distinguish between types of terrorist activities. However, it is vital to understand that there are many kinds of terrorist movements, and no single theory can cover them all. Not only are the objectives, members, beliefs, and resources of groups engaged in terrorism extremely diverse, but so are the political contexts of their campaigns. One popular typology identifies three broad classes of terrorism: revolutionary, subrevolutionary and establishment.

Revolutionary terrorism is the most common form. Practitioners of this type of terrorism seek the complete abolition of a political system and its replacement with new structures. Modern instances of such activity include campaigns by the Italian Red Brigades, the Basque separatist group ETA, each of which attempted to topple a national regime.

Subrevolutionary terrorism is rather less common. It is used not to overthrow an existing regime but to modify the existing sociopolitical structure. Since this modification is often accomplished through the threat of deposing the existing regime, subrevolutionary groups are more difficult to identify. An example can be seen in the ANC and its campaign to end apartheid in South Africa.

Establishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism is resorted to by governments, or more often by factions within governments, against that government’s citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups. This type of terrorism is very common. Different Muslim countries (Iran, Syria) provided logistical support and financial aid to Islamic revolutionary groups engaged in campaigns against Israel, the United States and some other Muslim countries in the late 20^th and early 21^st centuries. The persistent element of all forms of establishment terrorism is that of secrecy. States seek to disavow their active involvement in such acts, both to evade international censure and to avoid political and military retribution by those they target.

Another classification was worked out by American researches in the 1970s. By that time terrorist groups had begun to use such techniques as hijackings, bombings, diplomatic kidnapping and assassination to assert their demands and attain their objectives. For the first time they appeared as real menace to Western democracies. According to this classification types of terrorism are divided into: state (state-sponsored terrorism), bioterrorism, cyberterrorism, ecoterrorism, nuclear terrorism and narcoterrorism.

State terrorism. Many definitions of terrorism restrict it to acts by non-state actors. However, it can also be argued that states can be and have been terrorists. States can use force or the threat of force, without declaring war, to terrorize citizens and attain political goals. Germany under Nazi rule was described in this way.

It has also been argued that states participate in international terrorism. The USA considers Iran the most prolific sponsor of terrorism because Iran arms groups, such as Hezbollah, help carry out its foreign policy objectives.

Bioterrorism. It refers to the international release of toxic biological agents to harm and terrorize civilians, in the name of a political or another cause. The US Centre for Disease Control has classified the viruses, bacteria and toxins that could be used in an attack. Category A “Biological Diseases” are those which are likely to do the most damage. They include: anthrax, botulism, the plague, smallpox, tularemia, hemorrhagic fever.

Cyberterrorism. It is the use of information technology to attack civilians and draw attention to their cause. So cyberterrorists use computer systems and telecommunications as a tool to orchestrate a traditional attack. More often cyberterrorism refers to an attack on information technology itself in a way that would radically disrupt networked services. For example, cyberterrorists could disable networked emergency systems or hack into networks housing critical financial information.

Ecoterrorism. It is a term describing violence in the interests of environmentalism. Environmental extremists sabotage property to inflict economic damage on industries or actors they see as harming animals or the natural environment.

Nuclear terrorism. This type of terrorism refers to a number of different ways nuclear materials might be exploited as a terrorist tactic. These include attacking nuclear facilities, purchasing nuclear weapons, building nuclear weapons or finding ways to disperse radioactive materials.

Narcoterrorism. It has had several meanings. It once denoted violence used by drug traffickers to influence governments or prevent governments’ efforts to stop the drug state. In the last several years, narcoterrorism has been used to indicate situations in which terrorist groups use drug trafficking to fund other operations.

Scanning

1. Answer the following questions

1. Why is it difficult to work out a universal classification of different types of terrorism?

2. What are the main types of terrorism according to the first classification mentioned in the text?

3. What is revolutionary terrorism?

4. What are the present-day examples of revolutionary terrorism? What did they aim at?

5. What are the main objectives of subrevolutionary terrorism?

6. Why are subrevolutionary groups difficult to identify?

7. What is establishment terrorism?

8. What is the persistent element of all forms of establishment terrorism?

9. Why do states disavow their active involvement in terrorist acts?

10. What new methods and techniques had terrorists started to use by 1970s?

11. What types of terrorism are distinguished according to the second classification mentioned in the text?

12. What is understood by State terrorism?

13. What methods can states use to terrorize citizens and keep them under control?

14. Which state is considered the most prolific sponsor of terrorism by the USA?

15. What is bioterrorism?

16. What are the biological diseases that can do the most damage according to the survey of the US Centre for Disease Control?

17. What are the main methods used and aims of cyber terrorists?

18. What is ecoterrorism?

19. In what ways might nuclear terrorists exploit nuclear materials?

20. What is understood by narcoterrorism?

2. Comment on the following statements

1. There is no single classification that can cover all types of terrorism.

2. Subrevolutionary groups are difficult to identify.

3. Establishment terrorism is rather common.

4. The persistent element of all forms of establishment terrorism is secrecy.

5. By the 1970s terrorist groups had begun to apply more sophisticated ways of attaining their goals.

6. States can use force or the threat of force to reach their political goals.

7. The USA considers Iran the most prolific sponsor of terrorism.

2. Complete the table using the information from the text

Type of terrorism	Terrorists’ objectives	Means of attaining the goals

Make up the summary of the text using the table.

Word Study

1. Translate the following word combinations from English into Russian. Say in what context they were used in the text.

To distinguish; terrorist movements; to be engaged in; diverse; revolutionary terrorism; subrevolutionary terrorism; establishment terrorism; practitioner; abolition; to topple; to overthrow the existing regime; to modify; to depose the existing regime; faction; to disavow; to evade censure; to target; to assert demands; to attain objectives; menace; to declare war; to terrorize citizens; prolific sponsor; release of toxic agents; civilians; viruses; bacteria; to do damage; anthrax; botulism; the plague; smallpox; tularemia; hemorrhagic fever; to orchestrate an attack; to disrupt networked services; to disable; to hack; to sabotage; to inflict damage; to attack nuclear facilities; to purchase nuclear weapons; to disperse radioactive materials; drug traffickers; to fund operations.

2. Explain the meaning of the following words

1. to be engaged in

2. revolutionary terrorism

3. subrevolutionary terrorism

4. establishment terrorism

5. practitioner

6. to overthrow

7. faction

8. attain objectives

9. menace

10. to terrorize citizens

11. prolific

12. to do damage

13. to disrupt

14. to hack

15. to sabotage

16. drug traffickers

17. state-sponsored terrorism

18. bioterrorism

19. ecoterrorusm

20. cyberterrorism

21. nuclear terrorism

22. narcoterrorism

Talking Point

Discuss the following questions in groups. Don’t forget to use active vocabulary!

1. Do you think the classifications mentioned in the text are relevant? What are their weak and strong points?

2. Could you propose any other classification?

3. What types of terrorism are the most dangerous ones? Prove your viewpoint. Give examples.

Text 2. “Bioterrorism”

Pronunciation

Watch the pronunciation of the following words and phrases

1. pathogen

2. anthrax

3. to disperse

4. contagious

5. smallpox

6. vaccine

7. antibiotic

Reading

Read the text and say why bioterrorism is considered difficult to prevent.

Whereas an effective terrorist attack involving chemical agents could cause tens or hundreds of thousands of casualties, an effective attack using biological pathogens could result in millions. It is well known that members of the Al Qaeda organization have sought to acquire biological agents for attack and have contacts with states that possess biological weapons programs. The anthrax attacks that followed the September 11 attacks effectively ended the debate about whether or not terrorists could acquire and use biological agents. They have done so and they will continue to do so.

The good news is that biological pathogens are generally difficult to weaponize – that is, it is difficult to take them from a laboratory, produce them in large quantities, and turn them into a form that can be effectively dispersed to cause mass casualties. The bad news is that terrorists would need only a small quantity of a highly contagious pathogen like smallpox to infect enough people to cause mass casualties. Each infected individual, in effect, would become a walking biological weapon – a danger whose dimensions are magnified in our modern, mobile society. A local bio-attack could quickly become a national crisis with the potential to destroy the country.

Today’s security measures are not adequate to prevent the theft of dangerous pathogens. Furthermore, literally tons of Cold War-era biological weapons agents are easy to obtain.

In addition, we are ill prepared to prevent the dire consequences of a large-scale bioterrorism attack. We currently lack the stockpiles of vaccines and antibiotics and the means of rapid distribution that would be required for an effective response. We also lack trained and equipped cadres of first responders to cope with such a crisis.

Our governments also lack adequate management strategies, plans and information systems to cope with a bioterrorism attack.

The less prepared we are for a bioterrorism event, the greater the panic that is likely to follow, and the more threats there will be to civil liberties and people’s lives.

Only by preparing for the worst case scenario can we hope to limit its consequencies.

(Abridged by Kurt M.Campbell, Michele A.Flournoy. “To Prevail”)

Skimming

Find the facts in the text that can prove the following statements

1. Terrorist organizations can acquire and use biological weapons.

2. It is difficult to weaponize biological pathogens.

3. Biological weapons are extremely dangerous.

4. We are not prepared to prevent the dire consequences of a bio-attack.

5. We can limit the consequences of a bio-attack.

Word Study

1. Find English equivalents to the following

Приобретать и использовать биологические агенты (отравляющие вещества); производить в больших количествах; привести к массовым жертвам; заражать; живое (ходячее) биологическое оружие; меры безопасности не соответствуют требованиям; материал (средства) для быстрого распространения (раздачи); обученный и хорошо оснащенный персонал, который первым приходит на помощь; справиться с кризисной ситуацией; ограничить последствия.

2. Match the words with their definitions

a casualty	disastrous, drastic results
pathogens	a chemical substance capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of microorganisms, especially bacteria
to weaponize	an agent that can cause a disease
contagious	to use something as a destructive means
adequate	a person who is injured or killed in an accident
dire consequences	a substance for inoculation to produce immunity to a disease by stimulating the production of antibodies
stockpiles	capable of being passed on by direct contact with a diseased individual
vaccines	able to fulfill a need or requirement
antibiotics	a large store or supply accumulated for future use
to lack	to be in need of something

2. Use the words from the Word Study section in sentences of your own.

Speaking

Summarize the contents of the text in 10-12 sentences. Don’t forget to use active vocabulary!

Talking Point

Discuss the following issues with your partner. Share your ideas with the class.

1. Do you know any cases of bioterrorist attacks?

2. Is it possible to prevent the possible bioterrorist attacks? What measures can be taken to do it?

Text 3.”State-supported Terrorism”

Warm up

Discuss the following questions in groups. Share your ideas with the class.

1. What is understood by state-supported terrorism?

2. What is the “terrorism list”?

3. What countries are on the “terrorism list”? Why?

Reading

Read the text and say what countermeasures are taken by the USA against the countries accused of sponsoring terrorism.

The Secretary of State maintains a list of countries that have “repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism”. Or this list is drawn from the intelligence community. Listed countries are subject to severe U.S. export controls, particularly of dual use technology, and selling them military equipment is prohibited.

In 2000, seven countries were on the “terrorism list”: Cuba, Iran, Libya, Iraq, North Korea, Sudan and Syria.

Of the seven, five are Middle Eastern nations with predominantly Muslim populations. Of these on one end of the spectrum Iran and Iraq could currently be characterized as extreme active supporters of terrorism: nations that use terrorism as an instrument of policy or warfare beyond their borders. Iran and Libya are major oil producers. The dependence on oil complicates universal support for sanctions against these nations. Countries such as Cuba and North Korea, which at the height of the Cold War were more active, could be placed at the other end of the spectrum. In recent years, however, they have seemed to settle for the more passive role of granting safe haven to previously admitted individual terrorists. Sudan, which continues to serve as a safe haven for members of terrorist groups, has shut down their training camps and is engaged with the Department of State in ongoing dialogue on anti-terrorism issues. Closer to the middle of an active/ passive spectrum is Libya, which grants safe haven to wanted terrorists. Syria, though not formally detected in an active role since 1986, reportedly serves as the primary transit point for terrorists and for the resupply of weapons to terrorist groups in the Middle East. The Syrian Government has continued to provide political and limited material support to a number of Palestinian groups, including allowing them to maintain headquarters or offices in Damascus.

A complex challenge faces those charged with compiling and maintaining the list. Removing a country from the list is likely to result in some level of confrontation with Congress, so the bureaucratically easier solution is to maintain the status quo, or add to the list, but not to delete from it.

Despite significant international pressure the seven state sponsors of terrorism in 2002 did not take all the actions necessary to associate themselves fully from their ties ro terrorism. While some of these countries have taken steps to cooperate in the global war on terrorism, most have also continued the very actions that led them to be declared state sponsors.

(“Congressional Research Service”, 2000)

Scanning

1. Answer the following questions

1. Who maintains a “terrorism list”?

2. On what principle are countries included in the list?

3. What measures are being taken against the countries on the list?

4. What countries were on the list in 2000?

2. Update the information in the text.

Word Study

1. Translate the following word s and phrases from Russian into English

находиться под контролем (подвергаться контролю); запрещать; использовать терроризм как инструмент политики или прием ведения войны за пределами своей страны; основные нефтедобывающие страны; ликвидировать лагеря по подготовке террористов; террористы, находящиеся в розыске; служить первичным транзитным пунктом; дополнительные поставки оружия; полный разрыв связей с террористами.

2. Make up word combinations and translate them into Russian

1. Terrorists

• to train

• to pursue

• to bring to justice

• to punish

• to provide safe haven (sanctuary) for …

• to recruit

• to deny safe haven (sanctuary) for …

• to track down

• to harbor

• to tolerate

2. To provide

• funding

• support

• safe haven (sanctuary)

• aid (assistance, help)

• weapons (arms)

• free movement

• training

• political indoctrination

2. Prepare questions using the vocabulary from the Word Study section to discuss the danger of state-supported terrorism.

2. Translate the text from Russian into English