Bakalarska_prace_-_Lukas_Kratochvil

4.2.5. Gladiator mosaic in Galleria Borghese

Location: Italy. Rome, Galleria Borghese. Embedded in the floor of the Salone.

Inventory nr.: without inventory number.

Measures: The five larger sections: 2.16/2.25 x 5.39/5.782 m; the two smaller sections: 54 x 86 cm.

State of preservation: recomposed in seven sections (five larger; two very small) from many small square panel detached from their original setting.

Provenance: Borghese estate at Torrenova, on the via Casilina. Discovered and brought to light in 1834

Dating: First half of the 4th century AD.

Description: The most famous gladiatorial mosaic from the late Imperial period, decorated, in the shape of a continuous frieze, the cryptoporticus of an Imperial villa. Of the seven sections now in the Galleria Borghese, two depicts venationes, four scenes of munera and one scene both of munera and venatio.

The gladiatorial combats are between retiarii and secutores; moreover there are scenes of venatio. According to the inscriptions all the duels ended with the death of the loser: in fact, the Greek letter Θ (= first letter of θάνατος = “death”) characterizes the dead. The depicted gladiators use a scale manica, typical for this late period.

Bibliography: Dunbabin, Katherine M. D. Mosaics of the Greek and Roman world New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 53-73; Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren, Mainz 2000, p.144 – 145; Moreno, P., Viacava, A. I marmi antichi della galleria Borghese. La collezione archeologica di Camillo e Francesco Borghese. Roma: De Luca, 2003, pp. 136-138 (with further literature).

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Figs 4.1.5.1-2. Three fragments of the mosaic from Villanova in the Galleria Borghese, representing a venatio and gladiatorial combats between retiarii and secutores (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

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4.4 Decorative items

The whole decorative industry sector dealed with gladiatorial theme. This support numerous finds of commonly used staffs with gladiators and their fights topic. In RömischGermanisches Muzeum v Kolíně is placed collection of preserved oil lamps with gladiator depiction. Some of them are decorated with thraex himslef (Figs. 8a-c). Other show thraex in pair with murmillo (Figs. 9a-b) and hoplomachus (Fig. 6a). Two lamps from the National Museum in Berlin show two thraex (Fig. 10). Another group of decorative items constituted by small gladiator statuetes of various type cast from bronze (Figs. 11a-b) or in more rare occasions from ivory. It is certain that gladitorial theme arous enormous interest of common citizens. Especially in the day of Games a bussines with decorative items and souveniers with gladaitorial motive flourished. There were countless traders around amphitheatres selling medalions and statuettes with popular gladiators, ceramic with fighting motives, weapons, armatures and other various things of common use gladiatorial theme.

Figs. 8a-c. Detail of the three oil lamps with thraex gladiator, , Köln, Römisch-Germanisches Museum (after: http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

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Figs. 9a-b. Detail of the two oil lamps depicting fight between thraex and murmillo, , Köln, RömischGermanisches Museum (after :http://www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/4300079154/in/set72157623148558825 last visit: 27. 06. 2012)

Fig. 10 Two thraex , Berlin, Staatliche Museen –Antikensammlung (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms

Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 11a. Bronze statue of thraex prepared to fight..Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale (after: Junkelmann M. Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

Fig. 11b. Bronze statue of thraex in surrender gesture, Palencia, Museo Arqueologico (after: Junkelmann M.

Das Spiel mit der Todt – So kämpften Roms Gladiatoren 2000)

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5. The elements of the armature in the light of reenactment

5.1. Reenactment: an experimental approach

Reenactment has a strong tradition in Bohemia and thanks to high-quality crafters of historical replics there are some world-class projects. The term “reenactment” includes general revitalization of history. But quality degrees of such operation can be various.

At the lowest level there is a merely visual reconstruction, which creates only images of a certain period without putting any emphasis on historical or archaeological sources and on the used materials. This way, nonetheless, creates the illusion of historical authenticity but mostly without any connection to the reality of reconstructed age. This is a very popular way of delivering history in film industry nowadays. It brings a great number of historical epics which purpose is only to deliver a period’s image without any effort to create the true image of history.

At the opposite end of the range, there is professional reenactment66, which has the purpose to attain the most faithful reconstruction of a certain period, by a deep study of the sources and replying the techniques of that period. The most similar approach to antiquity is experimental archeology. Sometimes, yet, also professional reenactment has to face constructing compromises, especially because of the lack of information about techniques and processing of the selected period. Reenactment is only not focused on creating the picture of history but also should answer the questions about the functions and qualities of the reconstructed objects, which nowadays are only hypothetical. Differently from experimental archaeology, the true function of the object has the second place in reenactment. For example, archaeology will primarily examine the function of a weapon and its effect in the time it was originally created and in certain situations. Reenactment creates a credible picture of a certain period67 in which is not necessary to own an actually sharp weapon for its active, multiple use.

The craftsman who reconstructed all the parts of the bronze gladiatorial equipment I am presenting here − manica, ocrea, galea − is mr. Martin Junek, who belongs to the top-class of

66“Professional reenactment” is not an official term: in itself, it does not ensure the desired quality.

67For this type of reconstruction is not necessary to make a really sharp weapon. A blunt blade is better for

multiple use.

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armours and plattner articles craftsmen in Czech Reublic, and and his fame, among collectors and producers of events, is worldwide. On his great strength, besides other things, depends his capability of bronze manufacturing, which at such degree is very rare.

Due to the factory processing of bronze68, it is difficult to assess the properties of the metal when heated, despite the supplier given values. The biggest influence has ratio of copper and tin. For the reconstructions presented here tin bronze69 was used, a specifical alloy with a content of ca. 8 % of tin at most, which can be processed by cold-working70. The firmness71 of the cold-worked bronze slowly decreases by heating at 300 °C. A higher softness is reached by annealing at 650 to 700 °C. In the practice, this means that the metal plate must be annealed in forge: its temperature is controlled by the colour of the heated material (Fig 12a). When the metal is soft enough, there is only a short time for shaping72

(Fig. 12b). The complexity and expensiveness of bronze manufacturing multiplies the difficulties in comparison with iron or brass manufacturing, which is commonly used as a cheaper substitute. The qualities of bronze objects are very different when compared with similar items made with substitute materials.

Fig. 12a, Heating of the bronze sheet (photograph by Martin Junek)

Fig. 12b, Shaping of the vault line on a greave (photograph by Martin Junek)

68The tin bronze sheet, in this case.

69Tin bronze contains at most 20 % of tin, and the total amount of copper and tin must be at least 99 % in the final alloy.

70Alloys with more than 10 % of tin are processed by casting.

71In this case, bronze can be hammered in cold form because of his hardness.

72When bronze is annealed in the presence of air (i.e. of oxygen), it quickly cools down and becomes hard, which means also “fragile”.

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5.2 Reenactors

Reenactors are people interested in the restoration and reconstruction of history in all of its forms. For most of them it is a hobby more than a profession. Very often reenactors can be found among amateur archeologists. It is common in Czech Republic that most of the historical replicas craftmen are also people acting as reenactors. Unfortunately, it is also a common practice that every reenactor reconstructs his equipment at his own expense; and not everyone has access to the necessary archeological materials and knowledge. This fact usually influences the quality of the reconstructed objects. Therefore, a reason for the trade-off between historical replicas and bare imitations is the financial aspect. This influences both the used material and the degree (extension and quality) of decoration. Anyway, the largest share in quality of reconstruction have the capabilities and experience of the craftsman who reconstructs a certain object. Among Czech craftmen should be emphasized Patrick Bárta73, who is at the worldwide top of weapon manufacturing.

There is a lack of reenacting groups reconstructing actively the world of gladiators. The greatest expert in the field of reconstructions and experiments with gladiatorial equipments is the historian and experimental archeologist Dr. Marcus Junekelmann. He conducted an array of significant experiments with his reenacting group Familia Gladiatoria Pulli Cornicinis74, which are published in his studies75. His reconstructions are valuable thanks to their extent, but used materials and processing differ from the original ones. Instead of bronze he uses brass and iron. Furthemore, replicas maintain only the basic shape of the reconstructed object, regardless of decoration. His reconstructed items are not decorated and have only a raw basic shape with no details.

The other group reconstructing the gladiatorial world on a significant level is the Italian group Ars Dimicandi76. They are focused on reconstruction of fights and fighting techniques more than on equipment, which is at a very low level of processing quality. On the

73See: http://www.templ.net.

74See: http://www.clemens-fritz.de/gladiator.htm.

75Among his many titles, see: Junkelmann, M. Das Spiel mit der Todt - Roms Gladiatoren im Experiment. Mainz: von Zabern, 2000; Junkelmann, M. Gladiatorial and military equipment and fighting technique. A comparison. Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies, 11, 2000, p. 113-117; Junkelmann, M. Gladiators in action. Recent works on pratical aspects of gladiatorial combat. Rez. zu: "Retiarius vs. secutor et scissor. Ricostruzione empirica delle tecniche di combattimento e degli armamenti". Journal of Roman Archaeology, 23, 2010, p. 510-532.

76 See: http://www.arsdimicandi.net/.

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contrary, very good aesthetic results in reconstruction reached the German group Amor Mortis77.

5.3. Reconstruction

In this part of the work I would like to specify, correct or add some pieces of information, which were found out during the reconstruction and the following use of my thraex armature. As models for those parts of the thraex’s equipment (i.e. manica, sica, parmula), which were not preserved other archeological sources, mainly iconographical were used. The aim of this reconstruction is to create the replica of the armature of a gladiator thraex as it appeared during the first century AD. The archeological finds from the Quadriporticus of the Theatre at Pompeii are date not later than the year AD 79 and, therefore, they bring the largest information about this period. This makes this group of archaeological finds the best for our reconstruction. Considering the change of human constitution in course of time, the size of the reconstructed equipment is made to fit a man with nowadays structure. This is the reason why the shape is always the original one, but not the size.

The reconstruction of this thraex equipment started three years ago. Its quality was influenced by the number of the available pieces of information. But also reconstruction itself brought new knowledge, which helped to improve the quality of every following object.

5.4 Manica

Considering the absence of finds of gladiatorial manicae, this reconstruction was based on the combination of different sources. First of them is the mosaic from Zliten in Libya78, where on the left side there are fighting secutor and thraex depicted standing back to back. The colour of the manica of each of them is different from the colour of their equipment. Evident segments indicate the possibility of a scaled manica. In this case, the thraex would have an iron manica and the secutor a bronze one. The second source was the statuette of a thraex now in the Museum August Kestener in Hannover (Fig. 6b). The way of the hand protection also suggests the conclusion that the manica was formed by lamellar segments.

Our reconstruction of the righthanded manica is made in bronze. The used material was a 1.5 mm thick tin bronze plate. Twelve lamellae were made: the three in the area of the elbow are shorter, the other ones are provided with a leather patch for a better flexibility

77See: http://www.gladiatorenschule.eu/.

78Entry 4.2.1.

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(Figs. 13a-13b). The upper part of the manica covers the shoulder and is made out from one single piece of bronze. It is decorated with an embossed lionhead (Fig. 13c). On the inner side there are three leather straps along the whole length of the manica. The lamellae are riveted to them on both sides of the manica and in its middle. The rivets on the sides of the lamellae are easily visible, while in the middle the heads of the rivets are covered by overlapping lamellae. This has a strictly practical reason, that is joint protection. This area is exposed to hits and so it is susceptible to damage. To the rivets on the sides of the lamellae there leather loops are attached, through which run leather straps, tied up on the inside of the arm (Fig. 13e). Under the manica is worn a quilted linen sleeve on which metal lamellae are applied and fixed by leather straps. Fingers are protected by the overlapping of the linen sleeve and a leather plate79 attached by leather straps around wrist and palm. A larger strap is riveted in the upper part alonged around the chest and over the shoulder. On the both straps there are buckles for tightening (Fig. 5a). Lamellas of manica are overlapping from above. This fact is often topic of discussions. There were a number of experiments for proving direction of laying lamellas, if they were in this course or reversely. But results show that the laiyng of lamellas has no influence on function of manica. Total weight of this manica is 3kg.

Fig. 13a. Detail of the manica take apart	Fig. 13b. Detail of the leather elbow
(photograph by the Martin Junek)	cower (photograph by the Author)

79 Most of the depictions of gladiators show a manica on the whole arm, including the covering of fingers.

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Fig. 13c. Detail of the decoration (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 13d. Whole manica with leather plate cowering fingers (photograph by the Author)

Fig. 13e. Inside view of the manica, with the quilted sleeve and the leather straps

5.5 Ocreae

The model for the reconstruction of the high ocreae was a pair of greaves found at Pompeii, type B5 and B680, today on exhibition in the Musée du Louvre81. The greaves protect the front part of the leg from ankle to the half-thigh. The deepest are is in correspondence with the kneecap area, on which there is an embossed relief. This bulge eases the movement of the knee and in particular the kneeling down (Fig. 14a). There was no need of a fully anatomical shape, as for example in the Greeek kronoi or in the later mediaeval plated greaves, which were formed straight on the leg. Under the gladiatorial ocreae there were quilted leggings called fasciae (Fig. 14b), which absorbed the hits and also enabled a large range of moves of the legs. On both sides of a greave three bronze rings are attached. Through these leather straps pass and fasten the greave to the leg. Both ocreae are all along hemmed by a thin bronze plate 0.5 mm thick. All the joints of the hemming are covered under rivets, so that the

80Entry 3.2.A.2.

81Département des antiquités grecques, étrusques et romaines, Salle des bronzes, on the first floor.

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