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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

федеральноегосударственноебюджетноеобразовательное учреждениевысшего профессионального образования

«САНКТ-ПЕТЕРБУРГСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТОРГОВО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

(ФГБОУ ВПО «СПбГТЭУ»)

Английский язык

Методические указания

для студентов II курса заочного отделения всех факультетов.

Часть II

Санкт-Петербург

2012

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Составители: старший преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков Л. А. Черёмухина, старший преподаватель В. А. Иванова.

Английский язык: Методические указания для студентов II курса заочного отделения всех факультетов. Часть II / СПбГТЭУ;

Рассмотрено и утверждено на заседании кафедры иностранных языков 26 сентября 2012 года, протокол № 2.

Методические указания предназначены для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы студентов второго курса заочного отделения всех факультетов.

Учебный материал структурируется в два независимых методических блока-модуля.

Каждый модуль состоит из четырёх разделов, включающих в себя следующие виды языковой деятельности: чтение, разговор, письмо. Третий раздел каждого модуля содержит грамматический материал.

Методические указания написаны в соответствии с примерной типовой программой по иностранному языку для неязыковых вузов.

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MODULE 3. THE WORLD OF SCIENCE

Unit I. Reading and Speaking Section

Text 1 ECONOMICS AS A SCIENCE

During much of modern history, especially in the nineteenth century, economics was called simply “the science of wealth”. Like every other discipline that attempts to explain observed facts (e. g., physics, astronomy, meteorology), economics comprises a vast collection of descriptive material organized around a central core of theoretical principles. The manner in which theoretical principles are formulated and used in applications varies greatly from one science to another. Like psychology, economics draws much of its theoretical core from intuition, casual observation, and the “common knowledge about human nature”. Like astronomy, economics largely nonexperimental. Like meteorology, economics is relatively inexact, as is weather forecasting. Like particle physics and molecular biology, economics deals with an array of closely interrelated phenomena (as do sociology and social psychology). Like such disciplines as art, fantasy writing, mathematics, metaphysics, cosmology, and the like, economics attracts different people for different reasons: “One person’s meat is another person’s poison”. Though all disciplines differ, all are remarkably similar in one respect: all are meant to convey an interesting, persuasive, and intellectually satisfying story about selected aspects of experience. As Einstein put it: “Science is the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense-experience correspond to a logically uniform system of thought.”

Economics deals with data of income, employment, expenditure, interest rates, prices and individual activities of production, consumption, transportation, and trade. Economics deals directly with only a tiny fraction of the whole spectrum of human behavior, and so the range of problems considered by economists is relatively narrow. Contrary to popular opinion, economics does not normally include such things as personal finance, ways to start a small business, etc.; in relation to everyday life, the economist is more like astronomer than a weather forecaster, more like a physical chemist than a pharmacist, more like a professor of hydrodynamics than a plumber.

In principle almost any conceivable problem, from marriage, suicide, capital punishment, and religious observance to tooth brushing, drug abuse, extramarital affairs, and mall shopping, might serve as an object for some economist’s attention. There is, after all, no clear division

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between “economic” and “noneconomic” phenomena. In practice, however, economists generally leave the physical and life sciences to those groups that first claimed them, though not always. In recent years economists have invade territory once claimed exclusively by political scientists and sociologists, not to mention territories claimed by physical anthropologists, experimental psychologists, and paleontologists.

1.1. Answer the following questions:

1.How was economics called during much of modern history?

2.With what sciences does the author compare economics?

3.What similarities with economics have the following sciences: a) psychology; b) astronomy; c) meteorology; d) particle physics and molecular biology; e) art, fantasy writing, mathematics, metaphysics, cosmology, and the like?

4.What does economics deal with?

5.According to the text, can such problems as marriage and extramarital affairs be the subject of economists’ attention?

6.Is there a division between “economic” and “noneconomic” problems?

7.What fields have economists “invaded” in recent years?

1.2. Which of the following is not true about economics and economists?

1.In the 20th century economics was called “the science of wealth”.

2.Economics is only a theoretical science.

3.Einstein once said, “One person’s meat is another person’s poison”.

4.Economics deals with the problems of income, employment, and interest rates.

5.Economics also deals with weather forecasting, psychology and fantasy writing.

6.In recent years economists switched to the new fields, such as political science and sociology.

Text 2 THE THEORY OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND

Market economies are directed by prices. As the price of an item rises, sellers are encouraged to increase production, and consumers are discouraged from purchasing the item. When the price falls, the opposite is true. In this way prices send out “signals” to buyers and sellers, keeping the economy responsive to the forces of supply and demand.

In a free market economy, prices are determined by the interaction of the forces of supply and demand. Perfectly competitive markets are those in which many buyers and sellers, with full knowledge of market conditions, buy and sell products that are identical one another.

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Market demand is the quantity of the goods or services that buyers want and are able to buy at all possible prices. Demand varies inversely with price. That is, at higher price fewer items would be bought than at lower one. The degree to which price changes affect demand will depend upon the elasticity for demand for a particular item. Elasticity describes how much a change in price affects the quantity demanded. Market demand depends not only on the factors affecting individual demands, but also on the numbers of consumers in the market.

Supply, which is the quantity of a product that sellers will offer for sale at all possible prices at a particular time and place, varies directly with price. In other words, at higher price, more goods and services will be offered for sale than at lower one, and vice versa.

The price at which goods and services will actually be exchanged for money is known as the equilibrium, or market price. It is the point at which the quantity demanded exactly equals the quantity supplied. Market price is actually the point of intersection of the supply and demand.

Shifts in demand or supply will affect market price. An increase in demand will result in an increase in market price, and vice versa. Similarly, an increase in supply will result in a decrease in price, and vice versa.

1.3. Answer the following questions:

1.What roles do prices play in a market economy?

2.What price do consumers prefer?

3.What do we call the quantity of a product that buyers want and are able to buy?

4.What affects the demand for goods and services in a market economy?

5.What do we call the quantity of a product that sellers will offer for sale?

6.What affects the supply of a particular good or service?

7.What is known as the equilibrium, or market price?

8.How do shifts in demand and supply affect prices?

Text 3 THE BASIC METHOD OF ACCOUNTING

The double-entry system is the backbone of accounting. The first systematic presentation of double entry book-keeping appeared in 1494, two years after Columbus discovered America. It was described in a mathematics book written by Luca Paciolli, a Fransiscan monk who was a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. Goethe, the famous German poet and dramatist, referred to doubleentry book-keeping as “one of the finest discoveries of the human intellect”. And, indeed, the double-entry technique made accounting records more comprehensive and orderly. Before the invention of double-entry book-keeping accounting records had been

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disorganized. Merchants literally had not known the state of their finances. The use of this technique had a positive effect on both business and trade. Some scholars think that there was a close relationship between the adoption of the double-entry system and economic growth in many countries. In the Middle Ages the knowledge of this technique was a precondition of rapid economic growth of most European countries.

In Britain the first book on the double-entry system was written by one Hugh Old-Castle schoolmaster, who taught arithmetic. Later some more books describing this new method were published. English businessman began to employ this recording device. The primary advantage of double-entry accounting, to many historians of accounting, was that it abolished confusion in the accounts by creating order out of chaos.

In Russia double-entry accounting was introduced under Peter I. It was first applied for the Admiralty and the army. Peter I required the managers of all the mining and smelting works to maintain records of their operations, thus providing a basis for the collection of national statistics.

The double-entry system is based on the principle of duality, which means that all economic events have two aspects – effort and reward, sources and uses – that offset or balance each other. In the double-entry system each transaction must be recorded with at least one debit and one credit, in such a way that the total amount of debits and the total amount of credits equal each other. Because of the way it is designed, the system as the whole is always in balance.

1.4. Complete the following statements.

1.According to the text, the first book in Britain on the double-entry system…

2.It was written by…

3.No copy of this book…

4.Later some more books on the double-entry system…

5.English businessman began…

6.The advantage of double-entry lies in the fact that…

1.5. Answer the following questions:

1.What is the doubleentry for accounting?

2.When did the first presentation of the double-entry appear?

3.In what book was it described?

4.What did Goethe say about double-entry book-keeping?

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5.What was the state of affairs in accounting before the invention of the double-entry system?

6.What was the impact of the double-entry system on economic development of a country?

7.When was the first book on the double-entry system published in Britain?

8.When was the double-entry book-keeping first introduced in Russia?

9.Why is the double-entry system always in balance as a whole?

Text 4 WHAT IS BIOTECHNOLOGY?

Biotechnology in one form or another has flourished since prehistoric times. When the first human beings realized that they could plant their own crops and breed their own animals, they learned to use biotechnology. The discovery that fruit juices fermented into wine, or that milk could be converted into cheese or yogurt, or that beer could be made by fermenting solutions of malt and hops began the study of biotechnology. When the first bakers found that they could make a soft, spongy bread rather than a firm, thin cracker, they were acting as fledgling biotechnologists. The first animal breeders, realizing that different physical traits could be either magnified or lost by mating appropriate pairs of animals, engaged in the manipulations of biotechnology.

What then is biotechnology? The term brings to mind many different things. Some think of developing new types of animals. Others dream of almost unlimited sources of human therapeutic drugs. Still others envision the possibility of growing crops that are more nutritious and naturally pest-resistant to feed a rapidly growing world population. This question elicits almost as many first-thought responses as there are people to whom the question can be posed.

In its purest form, the term "biotechnology" refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment. Prehistoric biotechnologists did this as they used yeast cells to raise bread dough and to ferment alcoholic beverages, and bacterial cells to make cheeses and yogurts and as they bred their strong, productive animals to make even stronger and more productive offspring.

Throughout human history, we have learned a great deal about the different organisms that our ancestors used so effectively. The marked increase in our understanding of these organisms and their cell products gains us the ability to control the many functions of various cells and organisms. Using the techniques of gene splicing and recombinant DNA technology, we can now actually combine the genetic elements of two or more living cells. Functioning

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lengths of DNA can be taken from one organism and placed into the cells of another organism. As a result, for example, we can cause bacterial cells to produce human molecules. Cows can produce more milk for the same amount of feed. And we can synthesize therapeutic molecules that have never before existed.

1.6. Answer the following questions:

1.When did the first human beings learn to use biotechnology?

2.What discoveries led to the study of biotechnology?

3.What different things does the term “biotechnology” bring to mind?

4.What does the term “biotechnology” refer to in its purest form?

5.What did prehistoric biotechnologist use to raise bread dough and to ferment alcoholic beverages?

6.What did they use to make cheeses and yogurts?

7.How can the genetic elements of two or more living cells be combined?

8.What can be taken from one organism and placed into cells of another organism?

Text 5 SOME BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF NUTRITION

Anyone who plans menus should have some basic knowledge of nutrition and the properties in food that contribute to the health of those who eat it. This is so important for institutional food services that their staffs often include a dietitian to plan correct nutritional values. It is also essential in hospitals where many patients are on specials diets.

Foods can be classified into five basic groups to their nutritional values and the menu planner should have some knowledge of these groups.

Proteins are the cell buildings elements in foods. Meat and fish are rich in proteins; there are smaller quantities in grains such as wheat and rice, in nuts, and in some kinds of beans. Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide the body with heat and energy; grains have a high carbohydrate content, and so do potatoes and sugar. Fats are oily substances that are another source of heat and energy. They also form deposits of fatty tissue in the body. Vegetable oils are a liquid source of fat; other foods rich in fats are dairy products such as milk, butter, and cheese.

Minerals are substances necessary in very small amounts to regulate the functions of parts of the body such as nerves and glands; they are widely distributed through many different foods. Milk, for example, is rich in the mineral calcium, used in building bones; seafood is rich in iodine, which is present in the thyroid gland.

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Vitamins are substances, necessary for life, that regulate the functioning of the healthy organism as a whole. They abound in fresh vegetables, fruits, grains, fish, and meat.

Water, taken either as a fluid or as a part of solid food, is also a nutritional necessity. Many foods such as fresh fruits and vegetables contain a high percentage of water.

In addition to knowledge of these nutrients, the modern menu planner should be aware of calories. A calorie is a unit of heat that is used to indicate the energy value of food. Only a certain number of calories can be used by a human being; calories in excess of those are stored as fat. Today when most people are conscious of the relation between beauty, health, and weight, many count their calories carefully. The menu planner in a restaurant attracting customers who watch their weight should be careful to provide a number of low-calorie dishes. Even gourmet cooking now has chefs who adapt or develop dishes with a lower calorie count.

1.7. Decide whether each statement is true or false. Correct the false statements.

1.Those who plan menu should have some basic knowledge of nutrition and the properties in food that contribute to the health of any who eats it.

2.Institutional food services do not actually plan correct nutritional values of food, that’s why there is no a dietitian in their staffs.

3.It is essential to have a dietitian in hospitals where many patients are on special diets.

4.Foods can be classified into two basic groups according to their origin.

5.Meat and fish are rich in proteins.

6.Grains have a high fat content, and so do potatoes and sugar.

7.Dairy products such as milk, butter, and cheese are rich in fats.

8.Milk, for example, is poor in the mineral calcium, used in building bones.

9.Vitamins abound in fresh vegetables, fruits, grains, fish and meat.

10.Today people are more conscious of the beauty, than of health, and weight, so they do not count their calories carefully.

11.The menu planner in a restaurant attracting customers who watch their weight should be careful to provide a number of low-calorie dishes.

1.8.Complete the following sentences with the appropriate word or phrase.

1.Basic knowledge of nutrition is so important for institutional food services that their staffs often include a ............ to plan correct nutritional values.

2.Foods can be classified into five basic groups according to their ……….. values.

3.……….. are the cell buildings elements in foods.

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4.……….. are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that provide the body with heat and energy.

5.……….. are oily substances that are another source of heat and energy.

6.……….. are substances necessary in very small amounts to regulate the functions of parts of the body such as nerves and glands.

7.……….. are substances, necessary for life, that regulate the functioning of the healthy organism as a whole.

8.A ……….. is a unit of heat that is used to indicate the energy value of food.

9.Only a certain number of calories can be used by a human being; ……….. in excess of those are stored as fat.

10.Even gourmet cooking now has chefs who adapt or develop dishes with a lower ……….

count.

1.9.Answer the following questions.

1.Why do institutional foodservices often have a dietitian on their staffs? Is this a consideration for menu planning in other establishments?

2.What do proteins do? What foods are rich in proteins?

3.What do carbohydrates do? What foods have high carbohydrates content?

4.What kinds of foods are high in fats? What do these foods provide?

5.Why are minerals and vitamins necessary? What kinds of foods contain minerals and vitamins?

6.What fluid is a nutritional necessity? Is it found only in liquid form?

7.Why should a menu planner be aware of calories?

1.10 Work in pairs.

Discuss in detail why it is so important for modern menu planner to be aware of calories, water percentage, nutrition and the properties in food that contribute to the health of those who eat it.

UNIT II. Reading and Writing Section

Text PERSONAL LETTERS

Letter writing is an essential part of communication. A well-written letter can help you a lot in your personal relationship. A personal letter is sent from one individual to another individual or organization in order to address matters of a personal nature. Examples of personal letters

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