- •Morphological structure of a word. Classification of Morphemes
- •2.Various ways of word-building in Modern English.
- •3. Modern English phraseology.
- •Structure of word-groups
- •Meaning of word-groups
- •Motivation in word-groups
- •Structural class-ion
- •Etimological class-ion
- •Proverbs (пословицы)
- •4.Lexico-semantic grouping in Modern e. Lexicon
- •5. The Latin borrowing of different periods & their historical background
- •6. French as the most important foreign influence on the e. Language (at 2 historical periods)
- •7. The Noun. The category of Case.
- •Category of voice
- •9. The Adjective. The category of Comparison.
- •10. Category of Definiteness - Indefiniteness
- •The functions of the indefinite article
- •The functions of the definite article
- •11.The theory of phrase
- •Subordinate word-groups fall into 2 parts: the head (an independent component) & the adjunct (a dependent component) a good [adjunct] book [head] Subordinate word-groups can be classified:
- •12.The sentence
- •Types of Sentences According to Structure
- •13.Categorical structure of the word
- •14.The theory of phoneme
- •Variants of allophones of one & the same phoneme can not distinguish the meaning of the words though the acoustic & articulatory aspects may be different & quite distinct.
- •15. Lexical stylistic devices.
- •16. Lexico-syntactical sd
- •Periphrasis a sd, which consists of using a round about form of expression in stead of a simple one
- •18.Phonetic & Graph. Stylistic devices
- •Graphical sd
- •19.Syntactical stylistic devices
- •Repetition (sd) is reiteration of the same word, word combination, phrase for 2 or more times. Several types:
- •20.Parts of speech(Gram. Classes of Words)
- •21.Types of meaning.Semantic structure of a word.
- •Change of meaning
Morphological structure of a word. Classification of Morphemes
The word is the main unit of Morphology. The Word is the smallest unit of the language having positional independence and generalized representative of all word-forms, which it has. e.g. Speaking of word “река”we mean all word-forms (реку, реки, рекой). Thus a word-forms is a particular form of a word & the word represents all possible word-forms.
While the word is the largest unit of Morphology, the morpheme is the smallest unit, having both form (sound) & substance (meaning). The notion of the morpheme was introduced by Бодуэн де Куртэ as a generalized expression of the components of the word: the stem & the affixes.
The morpheme is represented in the language by its variants – allomorphs, having special forms & sounding differently (one & the same meaning). e.g. dreamed [d], worked [t], loaded [id].
A great many words in a language has a composite nature & are made up of smaller units, each having sound form & meaning. These are called morphemes. e.g. Teach-er, help-less-ness, sports-man.
Like a word a morpheme has a sound form & meaning.
Unlike a word a morpheme can’t be divided into smaller units without losing their constitutive meaning & can’t be used separately, can occur in speech only as a constituent part of a word.
1. Semantic classification of morphemes:
1. root morphemes: they are lexical centers of the words, their basic constituent parts (black-ness, London-er); The roots of words are classical lexical morphemes. Obligatory for any word.
2. affixational morphemes: subdivided into: prefixes + suffixes + inflexions = affixes: they have a generalized lexical meaning & the-part-of-speech-meaning (–er, -est, –ee -> A doer of an action, noun-forming affixes). Not obligatory.
Prefixes & suffixes have word-building functions, together with the root they form the stem of the word. Words which consist of a root and a prefix or suffix (or both) are called derivate words or derivatives.
Inflections express different morphological categories. e.g. fatherless & worked.
The morphemic model of the word is the following: prefix + root + lex suffix + gram suffix.
2. Structural classification of morphemes:
1. free morphemes (root morphemes) – a form may stand alone without changing and meaning.
friend, way, day, week;
2. bound morphemes (all the affixes) can’t form words by themselves, they are only part of words: un-, -less, pre-, -or, -er, dis-, mis-;
Productive bound morphemes: 1) -(e)s denotes * the plural of nouns, * the possessive case of nouns, * the 3d person singular of verbs (Present); 2) –(e)d denotes the Past & Past Participle of verbs; 3) –ing: * the Gerund, * the Present Participle; 4) –er, -est: the Comparative & Superlative degrees of adj-s & adv-s.
3. semi-bound (can function as an affix & as a free morpheme): thing (free)–something (bound), like – manlike, ladylike, do well–well-bred, well-done, well-known.1. Morphological structure of a word.
2.Various ways of word-building in Modern English.
Word-formation or word-building is the process of creating new words from the material of the language after certain structure & semantic formulas & patterns. There are productive ways - widely used: affixation (derrivation); word-composition; conversion; shortening & Non-productive ways – not used: back-formation; sound-&-stress interchange of word-formation.
affixation is one of the most productive involves adding to an existing word (stem) either a suffix to an end or a prefix at the beginning. e.g. special-ist
Prefixes+suffixes=affixes: help-less-ness=(n+less)+ness, specialist = (n+ist),chairmanship=(n+n) (chair+ man ) + suff.
Affixes:
prefixation is mostly typical of verbs;
prefixes change the lex. meaning of words: reread–read;
only some prefixes change the part of speech form: large–enlarge;
suffixation is mostly characteristic of nouns & adjectives;
suffixes change the lex. meaning of words: help–helpless;
the majority of suffixes change the part of speech: black–to blacken, child–childless;
only some suffixes don’t change part of speech: relation–relationship, chiold–childhood, brown–brownish; they transfer a word into another semantic group: from concrete nouns to abstract nouns (child–childhood).
Convertion is another highly productive way of word-building. It is a type of word building in which from some word already existing in the lang-e a new word is made. The new word coincides with the old one in its phonetic shape but belong to a different word class, a different category of part of speech, possessing a different paradigm and a different lex. meaning from that of original word.
main cases of convertion:
formation verbs from nouns and other parts of speech: to doctor–doctor, to thin–thin;
formation nouns from verbs to cut–a cut; n<–conjunction.
Work (noun) –s, pl.; -‘s singular pos –> substantive; Work (verb) -‘s plural pos –> paradigm -s: the 3-d person singular; -ed: past simple, participle II -ing: present part., gerund.
Word composition. Compounds are made up by joining together 2 stems.
degree of complexity: simple & derived stems (‘motorway’ is form from 2 simple words–motor & way). Compounds are usually formed according to structural & semantical formulae & patterns. Structurally it is a 2-stem center. Semantically it is a combined lex. meaning.
In a sentence it functions free & has quite a different reference to an object (marry-go-round). According to different degrees of motivation compounds are: completely motivated (both components are used in their direct meanings: a housekeeper, a sportsman); partially motivated (one component in the direct meaning, the other in indirect: a flowerbed (bed – indirect mean.), chatterbox (box-indirect)); completely non-motivated (both components are used in their direct meaning: eye-wash (smth said or done to deceive a person)).
According to degree of semantic independence of stems: subordinated (the head member is in the 2nd component): a speedometer; coordinated (both stems are semantically important, both words are structural and semantic centers): reduplicative (they are made up by repetition of the same word, fifty-fifty, bye-bye), phonetically varieties rhythmic twin forms (zig-zag).
According to the structure compounds are divided into: neutral (that is formed by simple placing of one stem after another without any linking element: a flowerbed, a shopwindow); morphological compounds (with a linking element such as afroasian; speedometer; sportsman, salesman); syntactic (are formed from segments of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs: man-of-war, up-to-date).
According to the types of stems: derivational (one of the stems is derived: babysitter); compounds proper (one of the stem is shortened or contracted: bedroom, fbi-aqgent).
Shortening is the way of formation of new words by means of substituting a part of a word for a whole.
Shortening may be of 2 types: graphical is used in written speech: in letters, scientific books, newspaper, articles, … : Mr & Mrs, Dr, St, rd,…; Graphical obriation are formed 2 different ways: Initial shortening (a.m., p.m.) & syllabar shortening.
Lexical is used in both: written & oral speech.
Ways of reading: as separate words (& they are substituted by words & phrases they represent ); as one word (FBI, MP); as a succession of a sound denoting by the constituent parts: UN.
Among lexical shortening we should distinguish between lexical Abbreviation, Proper, clipping, blending & ellipses.
Clipping consists in the cutting off of one or several syllables of a word. Types of clipping: initial clipping (phone>–TELEPHONE), final (go to the disco--- disco), middle (Maths), mix (detective ---tec).
Ellipses is clipping of a word or words in a phrase when the remaining part keeps the lex. meaning of whole phrase (pub=public house); a sit-down.
Blending is compounding by means of clipped words: medicare=medical care; yaden=yard+garden, Oxbridge.