Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorder / Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders, Two Volume Set - Volume 1 - A-L - I

Bruton agammaglobulinemia

means a certainty. It is also important to emphasize that breast cancer screening techniques and treatments are constantly being evaluated and improved.

Resources

BOOKS

Chart, Pamela. Breast Cancer: A Guide for Patients. Toronto: Prospero Books, 2000.

ORGANIZATIONS

American Cancer Society. 1599 Clifton Rd. NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. [phone]. http://www.cancer.org .

Facing Our Risk of Cancer Empowered (FORCE). 934 North University Drive, PMB #213, Coral Springs, FL 33071. [phone]. [e-mail]. http://www

.facingourrisk.org .

The National Alliance of Breast Cancer Organizations. 9 East 37th Street, 10th Floor, New York, NY 10016. [phone] or [phone]. [e-mail]://www.nabco.org .

Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. Occidental Tower, 5005 LBJ Freeway, Suite 370 LB74, Dallas, TX 75244. [phone] (Hotline) or [phone]. [e-mail]. http://www.breastcancerinfo.com .

WEBSITES

“The Genetics of Breast and Ovarian Cancer.” CancerNet.

http://cancernet.nci.nih.gov/clinpdq/cancer_genetics/

Genetics_of_breast_and_ovarian_cancer .

Deepti Babu, MS

Broad-thumb-hallux syndrome see

Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome

I Bruton agammaglobulinemia

Definition

Bruton agammaglobulinemia is an X-linked genetic condition caused by an abnormality in a key enzyme needed for proper function of the immune system. People who have this disorder have low levels of protective antibodies and are vulnerable to repeated and potentially fatal infections.

Description

An integral aspect of the body’s ability to resist and fight off infections by microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi) is the immune system. The immune system is comprised of specialized cells whose function is to recognize organisms that are foreign to the body and

destroy them. One set of specialized cells used to fight infection are the B cells. B cells circulate in the bloodstream and produce organism-fighting proteins called antibodies.

Antibodies are made of different classes of immunoglobulin that are produced within a B cell and are then released into the bloodstream, where they attach to invading microorganisms. There are antibodies specifically designed to combine with each and every microorganism, very similar to a lock and key. Once the antibodies attach to the microorganism, it triggers other specialized cells of the immune system to attack and destroy the invader, thus preventing or fighting an existing infection.

In order for antibodies to be produced by the body, the B cells must develop and mature so they are capable of producing the infection-fighting antibodies. When this process does not occur normally, the immune system can not work properly to fight off infection, a state known as immunodeficiency. Bruton agammaglobulinemia (also called X-linked agammaglobulinemia, or congenital agammaglobulinemia) is an inherited immunodeficiency characterized by failure to produce mature B cells and thus to produce the antibodies needed to fight infections. The abnormality in this disorder resides in Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK, also known as BPK or ATK), an enzyme needed for maturation of B cells. As a result, people with this condition have low levels of mature B cells and the antibodies that they produce, making them vulnerable to frequent and sometimes dangerous infections.

Bruton agammaglobulinemia was the first immunodeficiency disease to be identified, reported by the physician Colonel Ogden C. Bruton in 1952. Bruton’s patient, a four-year-old boy, was first admitted to Walter Reed Army Hospital because of an infected knee. The child recovered well when Bruton gave him antibiotics, but over the next four years he had multiple infections. Just at that time, a new instrument was installed in the hospital’s laboratory that was able to measure levels of antibodies in the bloodstream. At first the technician believed the machine was defective because it did not detect gammaglobulins (the building blocks of antibodies) in the boy, but Bruton recognized the significance of this finding, and remarked, “Things began to click then. No gammaglobulins; can’t build antibodies.”

Genetic profile

Bruton agammaglobulinemia is inherited in an X-linked recessive manner; thus, almost all persons with the disorder are male. Females have two X chromosomes, which means they have two copies of the BTK

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gene, whereas males only have one X chromosome and one copy of the BTK gene. If a male has an altered BTK gene, he will have Bruton agammaglobulinemia. If a female has one altered BTK gene, she will be a carrier and will be at risk to pass the altered gene on to her children. If her son inherits the altered gene, he will be affected; if her daughter inherits the altered gene, she will be a carrier like her mother. Alternatively, if her son or daughter does not inherit the altered gene, they will not be affected and will not pass the altered gene on to their children. Since fathers only pass a Y chromosome to their sons and an X chromosome to their daughters, none of an affected male’s sons will develop the disorder but all of the daughters will be carriers.

Mutations in the gene for BTK (located at Xq21.3- 22) are responsible for the disease. Over 250 different mutations in BTK have been identified and they are spread almost evenly throughout the BTK gene. While this abnormal gene can be passed from parent to child, in half of the cases a child will show the disease without having a parent with the mutant gene. This is because new alterations in the BTK gene can occur. This new alteration can then be passed on to the affected individual’s children.

Demographics

Bruton agammaglobulinemia occurs in all racial groups, with an incidence between one in 50,000 and one in 100,000 individuals.

Signs and symptoms

Bruton agammaglobulinemia is a defect in the B cells, leading to decreased antibodies in the blood and increased vulnerability to infection with certain types of bacteria and a few viruses. Children with Bruton agammaglobulinemia are born healthy and usually begin to show signs of infection in the first three to nine months of life, when antibodies that come from the mother during pregnancy and early breast-feeding disappear. In 2030% of the cases, however, patients may have slightly higher levels of antibodies present, and symptoms will not appear until later in childhood.

Patients with Bruton agammaglobulinemia can have infections that involve the skin, bone, brain, gastrointestinal tract, sinuses, eyes, ears, nose, airways to the lung, or lung itself. In addition, the bacteria may migrate from the original site of infection and enter the bloodstream, leading to an overwhelming infection of the body that is potentially fatal.

Besides signs of recurrent infections, other physical findings in patients with Bruton agammaglobulinemia

KEY TERMS

Antibiotics—A group of medications that kill or slow the growth of bacteria.

Antibody—A protein produced by the mature B cells of the immune system that attach to invading microorganisms and target them for destruction by other immune system cells.

B cell—Specialized type of white blood cell that is capable of secreting infection-fighting antibodies.

Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK)—An enzyme vital for the maturation of B cells.

Carrier—A person who possesses a gene for an abnormal trait without showing signs of the disorder. The person may pass the abnormal gene on to offspring.

Enzyme—A protein that catalyzes a biochemical reaction or change without changing its own structure or function.

Immune system—A major system of the body that produces specialized cells and substances that interact with and destroy foreign antigens that invade the body.

Immunodeficiency—A defect in the immune system, leaving an individual vulnerable to infection.

Immunoglobulin—A protein molecule formed by mature B cells in response to foreign proteins in the body; the building blocks for antibodies.

Mutation—A permanent change in the genetic material that may alter a trait or characteristic of an individual, or manifest as disease, and can be transmitted to offspring.

Vaccine—An injection, usually derived from a microorganism, that can be injected into an individual to provoke an immune response and prevent future occurrence of an infection by that microorganism.

X chromosome—One of the two sex chromosomes (the other is Y) containing genetic material that, among other things, determine a person’s gender.

include slow growth, wheezing, small tonsils, and abnormal levels of tooth decay. Children may also develop unusual symptoms such as joint disease, destruction of red blood cells, kidney damage, and skin and muscle inflammation. Increased incidence of cancers, such as leukemia, lymphoma, and possibly colon cancer, have

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Bruton agammaglobulinemia

been associated with Bruton agammaglobulinemia in a small percentage of people.

Infections seen with Bruton agammaglobulinemia are caused by bacteria that are easily destroyed by a nor- mal-functioning immune system. The most common bacterial species responsible for these infections include

Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Neisseria meningitides, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, and Mycoplasma species. Chronic stomach and intestine infections are often linked to the parasite

Giardia lamblia.

Patients with Bruton agammaglobulinemia can successfully defend themselves against infection from viruses and fungi because other aspects of the immune system are still functional. However, there are some notable exceptions—people with this disorder are still vulnerable to the hepatitis virus, poliomyelitis virus, and echovirus. Echovirus is particularly troubling, as it can lead to progressive and fatal infections of the brain, joints, and skin.

Diagnosis

Recurrent infections or infections that fail to respond completely or quickly to antibiotics should prompt a diagnostic search for immunodeficiency and Bruton agammaglobulinemia. Another helpful clue to a diagnosis of Bruton agammaglobulinemia is the presence of unusually small lymph nodes and tonsils. Additionally, many patients with this disorder have a history of continuous illness; that is, they do not have periods of wellbeing between bouts of illness.

When a patient is suspected of having Bruton agammaglobulinemia, the diagnosis is established by several tests. The amount of immunoglobulin is measured in a small amount of blood from the affected individual by a technique called immunoelectrophoresis. In Bruton agammaglobulinemia, all of the immunoglobulins will be markedly reduced or absent. It should be noted that there is some difficulty in diagnosing the disease in a young infant or newborn because immunoglobulins from the mother are still present in the child during the first few months of life.

For those patients in which the exact diagnosis is still unclear, tests can be performed to determine if there has been any response to normal childhood immunizations (such as the tetanus, diptheria, and pertussis vaccines). Patients with Bruton agammaglobulinemia are unable to respond with antibody formation following immunization. Confirmation of the diagnosis can be made by demonstrating abnormally low numbers of mature B cells in the blood or by genetic studies that look for mutations

in the BTK gene. When a diagnosis of Bruton agammaglobulinemia is made in a child, genetic testing of the BTK gene can be offered to determine if a specific gene change can be identified. If a specific change is identified, carrier testing can be offered to the mother and female relatives. In families where the mother has been identified to be a carrier of a BTK gene change, diagnosis of Bruton agammaglobulinemia before birth is possible, if desired. Prenatal diagnosis is performed on cells obtained by amniocentesis (withdrawal of the fluid surrounding a fetus in the womb using a needle) at about 1618 weeks of pregnancy or from the chorionic villi (a part of the placenta) at 10-12 weeks of pregnancy. In some families, a BTK gene change cannot be identified. Other laboratory techniques may be available to these families such as linkage studies or X chromosome inactivation studies.

Other diagnostic tests have been advocated to track the ongoing health of the patient with Bruton agammaglobulinemia. X rays of the sinuses and chest should be obtained at regular intervals to monitor for the early development of infections and to determine if proper treatment has been established. Lung function tests should also be performed on a regular basis, when the patient is old enough to cooperate. Patients who have ongoing gastrointestinal tract symptoms (diarrhea) should be tested for the parasite Giardia lamblia.

Treatment and management

Current research into a cure for Bruton agammaglobulinemia is focusing on the ability of bone marrow transplantation or gene therapy to correct the abnormal BTK gene, however, there is no cure at this time. Therefore the goals of treatment are threefold: to treat infection effectively, to prevent repeated infections, and to prevent the lung damage that may result from repeated infections.

The main abnormality in patients with Bruton agammaglobulinemia is a lack of immunoglobulins, which are the building blocks of antibodies. Thus, treatment focuses on replacing immunoglobulin, thereby providing patients with the antibodies they need to fight infection. Immunoglobulin can be obtained from the blood of several donors and given to a patient with Bruton agammaglobulinemia. Treatment with immunoglobulin is given every three to four weeks and is usually effective in preventing infection by various microorganisms.

Side effects from or allergic reactions to immunoglobulin are infrequent, but about 3-12% of people will experience shortness of breath, sweating, increased heart rate, stomach pain, fever, chills, headache, or nausea. These symptoms will usually sub-

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side if the immunoglobulin is given slowly, or the reactions may disappear after receiving the immunoglobulin several times. If the reactions continue, it may be necessary to use a special filtering process before giving the immunoglobulin to the patient.

If infection does occur in a patient with Bruton agammaglobulinemia, antibiotics (medications which kill bacteria) are also given to help fight off the infection. Recurrent or chronic infections will develop in some patients despite the use of immunoglobulin. In that case, antibiotics may be given every day, even when there is no infection present, in order to prevent an infection from forming. If chronic diarrhea is experienced by the patient, tests should be performed to look for the parasite Giardia lamblia, and proper antibiotics should be given to kill the organism.

Preventative techniques are also very important. Children with Bruton agammaglobulinemia should be treated promptly for even minor cuts and scrapes, and taught to avoid crowds and people with infections. People with this disorder and their family members should not be given vaccinations that contain live organisms (polio, or the measles, mumps, rubella vaccine) as the organism may result in the immunocompromised person contracting the disease that the vaccination is intended to prevent. Referral for genetic counseling is appropriate for female relatives seeking information about their carrier status and for family members making reproductive decisions.

Prognosis

Without immunoglobulin treatment, 90% of patients with Bruton agammaglobulinemia will die by the age of eight years old. In most patients who have been diagnosed early and are receiving immunoglobulin on a regular basis, the prognosis is reasonably good. They should be able to lead a relatively normal childhood and need not be isolated to prevent dangerous infections. A full and active lifestyle is to be encouraged.

While current therapy allows most individuals with Bruton agammaglobulinemia to reach adulthood, the prognosis must be guarded. Paralysis of the legs may result from the poliomyelitis virus. Despite what may appear to be adequate immunoglobulin therapy, many patients develop severe, irreversible lung disease. Fatal brain infections have been reported even in patients receiving immunoglobulin therapy, and patients who recover from these infections may be left with severe brain damage. Finally, some patients may develop leukemia or lymphoma.

Resources

BOOKS

Ammann, A. J. “Antibody Immunodeficiency Disorders.” In Medical Immunology. Stamford, CT: Appleton and Lange, 1997.

Buckley, R. H. “T, B, and NK Cells.” In Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, edited by R. E. Behrman. 16th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 2000.

Cooper, M. D. “Primary Immune Deficiencies.” In Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, edited by A.S. Fauci. 14th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.

PERIODICALS

Nonoyama, S. “Recent Advances in the Diagnosis of X-linked Agammaglobulinemia.” Internal Medicine 38 (September 1999): 687-688.

ORGANIZATIONS

Immune Deficiency Foundation. 40 W. Chesapeake Ave., Suite 308, Towson, MD 21204. [phone]. (410) 3219165. http://www.primaryimmune.org .

WEBSITES

“Bruton Agammaglobulinemia Tyrosine Kinase.” Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih

.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?300300 (May 24, 2001).

Oren Traub, MD, PhD

Bulldog syndrome see

Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome

agammaglobulinemia Bruton

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C

Campomelic dwarfism see Campomelic dysplasia

I Campomelic dysplasia

Definition

Campomelic dysplasia is a rare, often lethal, genetic condition characterized by multiple abnormalities including short limbs, bowed legs, distinctive facial features, and a narrow chest. It is also often associated with abnormal development of the sex (reproductive) organs in males.

Description

Campomelic dysplasia is also known as campomelic syndrome, campomelic dwarfism, CMD1, and CMPD1. This condition affects the bones and cartilage of the body, causing significantly short arms and legs, bowing of the legs, small chest size, and other skeletal (bony) and nonskeletal problems. Some genetic males with campomelic dysplasia have female sex organs. Death often results in the newborn period due to breathing problems related to the small chest size. Campomelic dysplasia is caused by an alteration (mutation) in a gene called SOX9. It usually occurs randomly in a family.

Genetic profile

Campomelic dysplasia is caused by an alteration in the SOX9 gene, which plays a role in bone formation and testes development. Genes are units of hereditary material found on chromosomes, which are passed from a parent to a child through the egg and sperm. The information contained in genes is responsible for the development of all the cells and tissues of the body.

The SOX9 gene is located on chromosome 17 (one of the 22 non-sex chromosomes) and it plays a role in

both bone formation and testes development. The testes are responsible for producing male hormones. Every developing baby in the womb (fetus), whether genetically male (XY) or female (XX), starts life with the capacity to develop either male or female sex organs. After a few weeks, in an XY fetus, the genitals develop into male genitals if male hormones are present. In the absence of male hormones, a female body type with female genitals results.

In individuals with campomelic dysplasia, the SOX9 gene is altered such that it does not work properly. This causes the testes to form improperly and the male hormones are not produced; thus, individuals who are genetically male (XY) can develop as normal females. This is known as sex-reversal and occurs in about 66% of genetic males with campomelic dysplasia. Since SOX9 is also important for proper bone formation, the bones of the body are also affected causing short stature, bowed legs, and other problems.

There are usually two normal copies of the SOX9 gene: one copy of the gene is inherited from the mother and one copy is inherited from the father. Campomelic dysplasia is inherited as a dominant condition. In dominant conditions, a person only needs one altered gene copy to develop the condition. The alteration in the SOX9 gene that causes campomelic dysplasia is usually random. This means that some unknown event has caused the SOX9 gene (which functions normally in the parent) to become altered in either the sperm of the father or the egg of the mother. When this altered sperm or egg is fertilized, the child that results has campomelic dysplasia. The chance for parents of a child with campomelic dysplasia to have a second child with the same condition is slightly higher than it would be for another couple who has not had a child with this condition. A person who has campomelic dysplasia can pass on their altered SOX9 gene to his or her future children; however, there have not been any reports of individuals with campomelic dysplasia having children.

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K E Y T E R M S

Amniocentesis—A procedure performed at 16-18 weeks of pregnancy in which a needle is inserted through a woman’s abdomen into her uterus to draw out a small sample of the amniotic fluid from around the baby. Either the fluid itself or cells from the fluid can be used for a variety of tests to obtain information about genetic disorders and other medical conditions in the fetus.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)—A procedure used for prenatal diagnosis at 10-12 weeks gestation. Under ultrasound guidance a needle is inserted either through the mother’s vagina or abdominal wall and a sample of cells is collected from around the fetus. These cells are then tested for chromosome abnormalities or other genetic diseases.

Dysplasia—The abnormal growth or development of a tissue or organ.

Fetus—The term used to describe a developing human infant from approximately the third month of pregnancy until delivery. The term embryo is used prior to the third month.

Genitals—The internal and external reproductive organs in males and females.

Gonads—The organ that will become either a testis (male reproductive organ) or ovary (female reproductive organ) during fetal development.

Hormone—A chemical messenger produced by the body that is involved in regulating specific bodily functions such as growth, development, and reproduction.

Ovary—The female reproductive organ that produces the reproductive cell (ovum) and female hormones.

Testes—The male reproductive organs that produce male reproductive cells (sperm) and male hormones.

Demographics

Campomelic dysplasia is a rare condition that affects males and females of all ethnic groups. It is estimated that approximately one in 10,000 newborns are affected with this condition.

Signs and symptoms

Campomelic dysplasia can affect the body in several ways. Campomelic means “curved limb” and refers to

the fact that individuals with campomelic dysplasia typically have curved or bowed legs. Usually there is a dimple in the leg just below the knee. The condition causes significantly short stature, which is evident from birth.

Other features include very small shoulder blades; a very small chest; a curved and twisted spine (kyphoscoliosis); feet that are often turned inwards (clubfeet); dislocated hips; short fingers and toes; and often there are 11 pairs of ribs instead of the usual 12. In some individuals, the pelvic bones and the bones of the spine can also be affected.

A large head size and distinctive facial features such as a high forehead; a flat, small face; small chin; low set ears; and widely spaced eyes are also common. Some individuals have an incomplete closure of the roof of the mouth (cleft palate). Breathing problems are common and are often the cause of death in newborns. The breathing problems usually result from the small chest size, small lungs, and narrow airway passages. Those who survive into early infancy frequently have feeding problems and difficulty breathing.

Individuals with campomelic dysplasia may also have heart defects and hearing loss. Some females with the condition have a Y chromosome. Females with campomelic dysplasia who have a Y chromosome are genetically male; however, their sex organs are female and thus they should be treated as normal females. The intellect of individuals with campomelic dysplasia is usually normal although there have been reports of some individuals who are mentally delayed.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of campomelic dysplasia is based on the presence of certain clinical features. Some of the bony abnormalities are more obvious on x ray. The features that suggest a diagnosis of campomelic dysplasia include significantly short stature present from birth, small shoulder blades, 11 pairs of ribs instead of 12, small chest size, bowed legs, and a dimple on the leg below the knee.

The diagnosis of campomelic dysplasia can be confirmed through genetic testing which requires a blood sample from the affected individual. The genetic test involves identifying the specific alteration in the SOX9 gene. Parents of an affected child may seek testing for campomelic dysplasia in future pregnancies. This can be performed on the developing baby before birth through amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling if an alteration in the SOX9 gene is identified in the previously affected individual. Prenatal testing should only be considered after the gene alteration has been confirmed in

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the affected individual and the couple has been counseled regarding the risks of recurrence.

Treatment and management

Campomelic dysplasia is associated with a significant risk for death in the newborn period due to the small chest and small lungs. There is no effective treatment to expand the size of the chest. Those who survive into early infancy have feeding problems and often have difficulty breathing. An occupational therapist may be able to assist with the feeding issues. Breathing problems may necessitate that the child be placed on oxygen.

Some individuals with campomelic dysplasia have significant twisting and bending of their spine (kyphoscoliosis) which can interfere with breathing. A bone specialist (orthopedist) should be consulted for advice on potential treatments such as bracing or surgery. An orthopedist should also be consulted regarding the other bony problems such as clubfoot and bowed legs. Individuals with campomelic dysplasia should also have their hearing assessed and their heart examined because of the increased risk for hearing loss and heart defects, respectively.

In females with campomelic dysplasia who have a Y chromosome, the gonads (the organs that will later become either testes or ovaries during fetal development) do not develop properly into ovaries. It is generally recommended that the gonads be surgically removed because there is an increased chance for tumors to occur in the gonads when they do not develop properly.

Very few individuals with campomelic dysplasia live beyond the newborn period but most who do are of normal intelligence. During the school years, it may be necessary to make some changes (such as providing the individual with a step-stool in the bathroom) to foster independence. For some, meeting other individuals of short stature may be beneficial. Groups such as the Little People of America (LPA) serve as a source of information and offer opportunities to meet other people facing similar challenges. Individuals with campomelic dysplasia and their families may benefit from genetic counseling, which can provide them with further information on the condition itself and recurrence risks for future pregnancies.

Prognosis

Campomelic dysplasia is associated with a significant risk for death in the newborn period. Most newborns die during the first few hours after birth from breathing problems due to the small chest size and small, underdeveloped lungs. A few individuals with campomelic dysplasia have lived to be adults.

Resources

ORGANIZATIONS

Greenberg Center for Skeletal Dysplasias. 600 North Wolfe St., Blalock 1012C, Baltimore, MD 21287-4922. (410) 6140977. http://www.med.jhu.edu/Greenberg.Center/ Greenbrg.htm .

Johns Hopkins University—McKusick Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine 600 North Wolfe St., Blalock 1008, Baltimore, MD 21287-4922. [phone].

Little People of America, Inc. National Headquarters, PO Box 745, Lubbock, TX 79408. [phone] or (888) LPA2001. [e-mail]. http://www.lpaonline.org .

National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD). PO Box 8923, New Fairfield, CT 06812-8923. [phone] or [phone]. Fax: [phone]. http://www

.rarediseases.org .

WEBSITES

“Campomelic Dysplasia.” OMIM—Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. http://www3.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ . (March 9, 2001).

Nada Quercia, MS

Campomelic syndrome see Campomelic dysplasia

Camunati-Englemann disease see

Engelmann disease

I Canavan disease

Definition

Canavan disease, which results when the body produces less than normal amounts of a protein called aspartoacylase, is a fatal inherited disorder characterized by progressive damage to the brain and nervous system.

Description

Canavan disease is named after Dr. Myrtelle Canavan who described a patient with the symptoms of Canavan disease but mistakenly diagnosed this patient with Schilder’s disease. It was not until 1949, that Canavan disease was recognized as a unique genetic disease by Van Bogaert and Betrand. The credit went to Dr. Canavan, however, whose initial description of the disease dominated the medical literature.

Canavan disease, which is also called aspartoacylase deficiency, spongy degeneration of the brain, and infantile spongy degeneration, results from a deficiency of the enzyme aspartoacylase. This deficiency ultimately results

disease Canavan

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in progressive damage to the brain and nervous system and causes mental retardation, seizures, tremors, muscle weakness, blindness and an increase in head size. Although most people with Canavan disease die in their teens, some die in childhood and some may live into their twenties and thirties.

Canavan disease is sometimes called spongy degeneration of the brain since it is characterized by a sponginess or swelling of the brain cells and a destruction of the white matter of the brain. Canavan disease is an autosomal recessive genetic condition that is found in all ethnic groups, but is most common in people of Ashkenazi (Eastern European) Jewish descent.

Genetic profile

Canavan disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disease. A person with Canavan disease has changes (mutations) in both of the genes responsible for producing the enzyme aspartoacylase and has inherited one changed gene from his or her mother and one changed gene from his or her father. The aspartoacylase gene is called ASPA and is located on chromosome number 17. There are a number of different types of changes in the ASPA gene that can cause Canavan disease, although there are three common gene changes. When the ASPA gene is changed it does not produce any aspartoacylase or produces reduced levels of this enzyme. The amount of aspartoacylase produced depends on the type of gene alteration. Reduced production of aspartoacylase results in lower than normal amounts of this enzyme in the brain and nervous system. Aspartoacylase is responsible for breaking down a substance called N-acetylaspartic acid (NAA). When the body produces decreased levels of aspartoacylase, a build-up of NAA results. This results in the destruction of the white matter of the brain and nervous system and causes the symptoms of Canavan disease.

Parents who have a child with Canavan disease are called carriers, since they each possess one changed ASPA gene and one unchanged ASPA gene. Carriers usually do not have any symptoms since they have one unchanged gene that can produce enough aspartoacylase to prevent the build-up of NAA. Each child born to parents who are both carriers for Canavan disease has a 25% chance of having Canavan disease, a 50% chance of being a carrier and a 25% chance of being neither a carrier nor affected with Canavan disease.

Demographics

Although Canavan disease is found in people of all ethnicities, it is most common in Ashkenazi Jewish individuals. Approximately one in 40 Ashkenazi Jewish individuals are carriers for Canavan disease and approxi-

mately one in 6,400 Ashkenazi Jewish people are born with Canavan disease.

Signs and symptoms

Most infants with Canavan disease appear normal for the first month of life. The onset of symptoms, such as a lack of head control and poor muscle tone, usually begins by two to three months of age, although some may have an onset of the disease in later childhood. Children with Canavan disease usually experience sleep disturbances, irritability, and swallowing and feeding difficulties after the first or second year of life. In many cases, irritability resolves by the third year. As the child with Canavan disease grows older there is a deterioration of mental and physical functioning. The speed at which this deterioration occurs will vary for each affected person. Children with Canavan disease are mentally retarded and most will never be able to sit, stand, walk or talk, although they may learn to laugh and smile and reach for objects. People with Canavan disease have increasing difficulties in controlling their muscles. Initially they have poor muscle tone but eventually their muscles become stiff and difficult to move and may exhibit spasms. Canavan disease can cause vision problems and some people with Canavan disease may eventually become blind. People with Canavan disease typically have disproportionately large heads and may experience seizures.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic testing

Canavan disease should be suspected in a person with a large head who has poor muscle control, a lack of head control and a destruction of the white matter of the brain, which can be detected through a computed tomography (CT) scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A diagnosis of Canavan disease can usually be confirmed by measuring the amount of NAA in a urine sample since a person with Canavan disease typically has greater than five to ten times the normal amount of NAA in their urine. Canavan disease can be less accurately diagnosed by measuring the amount of aspartocylase enzyme present in a sample of skin cells.

Once a biochemical diagnosis of Canavan disease is made, DNA testing may be recommended. Detection of an ASPA gene alteration in a person with Canavan disease can confirm an uncertain diagnosis and help facilitate prenatal diagnosis and carrier testing of relatives. Although there are a number of different ASPA gene changes responsible for Canavan disease, as of 2001, clinical laboratories typically test for only two to three common gene changes. Two of the ASPA gene changes

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K E Y T E R M S

Amniocentesis—A procedure performed at 16-18 weeks of pregnancy in which a needle is inserted through a woman’s abdomen into her uterus to draw out a small sample of the amniotic fluid from around the baby. Either the fluid itself or cells from the fluid can be used for a variety of tests to obtain information about genetic disorders and other medical conditions in the fetus.

Amniotic fluid—The fluid which surrounds a developing baby during pregnancy.

Amniotic sac—Contains the fetus which is surrounded by amniotic fluid.

Biochemical testing—Measuring the amount or activity of a particular enzyme or protein in a sample of blood, urine, or other tissue from the body.

Carrier—A person who possesses a gene for an abnormal trait without showing signs of the disorder. The person may pass the abnormal gene on to offspring.

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)—A procedure used for prenatal diagnosis at 10-12 weeks gestation. Under ultrasound guidance a needle is inserted either through the mother’s vagina or abdominal wall and a sample of cells is collected from around the fetus. These cells are then tested for chromosome abnormalities or other genetic diseases.

Chromosome—A microscopic thread-like structure found within each cell of the body and consists of a complex of proteins and DNA. Humans have 46

chromosomes arranged into 23 pairs. Changes in either the total number of chromosomes or their shape and size (structure) may lead to physical or mental abnormalities.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)—The genetic material in cells that holds the inherited instructions for growth, development, and cellular functioning.

DNA testing—Analysis of DNA (the genetic component of cells) in order to determine changes in genes that may indicate a specific disorder.

Enzyme—A protein that catalyzes a biochemical reaction or change without changing its own structure or function.

Gene—A building block of inheritance, which contains the instructions for the production of a particular protein, and is made up of a molecular sequence found on a section of DNA. Each gene is found on a precise location on a chromosome.

Poor muscle tone—Muscles that are weak and floppy.

Prenatal testing—Testing for a disease such as a genetic condition in an unborn baby.

Protein—Important building blocks of the body, composed of amino acids, involved in the formation of body structures and controlling the basic functions of the human body.

White matter—A substance found in the brain and nervous system that protects nerves and allows messages to be sent to and from the brain to the various parts of the body.

are common in Ashkenazi Jews with Canavan disease and the other ASPA gene change is common in those of other ethnic backgrounds. Testing for other types of changes in the ASPA gene is only done on a research basis.

Carrier testing

DNA testing is the only means of identifying carriers of Canavan disease. If possible, DNA testing should be first performed on the affected family member. If a change in the ASPA gene is detected, then carrier testing can be performed in relatives such as siblings, with an accuracy of greater than 99%. If the affected relative does not possess a detectable ASPA gene change, then carrier testing will be inaccurate and should not be performed. If DNA testing of the affected relative cannot be performed, carrier testing of family members can still be performed

but will be less accurate. Carrier testing for the three common ASPA gene mutations identifies approximately 97–99% of Ashkenazi Jewish carriers and 40–55% of carriers of other ethnic backgrounds.

Carrier testing of individuals without a family history of Canavan disease is only recommended for people of Ashkenazi Jewish background since they have a higher risk of being carriers. As of 1998, both the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the American College of Medical Genetics recommend that DNA testing for Canavan disease be offered to all Ashkenazi Jewish couples who are planning children or who are currently pregnant. If only one member of the couple is of Ashkenazi Jewish background than testing of the Jewish partner should be performed first. If the Jewish partner is a carrier, than testing of the non-Jewish partner is recommended.

disease Canavan

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Canavan disease

Prenatal Testing

Prenatal testing through chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis is available to parents who are both carriers for Canavan disease. If both parents possess an ASPA gene change, which is identified through DNA testing, then DNA testing of their baby can be performed. Some parents are known to be carriers for Canavan disease since they already have a child with Canavan disease, yet they do not possess ASPA gene changes that are detectable through DNA testing. Prenatal diagnosis can be performed in these cases by measuring the amount of NAA in the amniotic fluid obtained from an amniocentesis. This type of prenatal testing is less accurate than DNA testing and can lead to misdiagnoses.

Treatment and management

As of 2001, there is no cure for Canavan disease and treatment largely involves the management of symptoms. Seizures and irritability can often be controlled through medication. Children with loss of head control will often benefit from the use of modified seats that can provide full head support. When feeding and swallowing becomes difficult, liquid diets and/or feeding tubes become necessary. Feeding tubes are either inserted through the nose (nasogastric tube) or through a permanent incision in the stomach (gastrostomy). Patients with a later onset and slower progression of the disease may benefit from special education programs and physical therapy. As of 2001, research trials of gene therapy are ongoing and involve the transfer of an unchanged ASPA gene into the brain cells of a patient. The goal of gene therapy is to restore normal amounts of aspartoclylase in the brain and nervous system and prevent the build-up of NAA and the symptoms of Canavan disease. The initial results of these early clinical trials have been somewhat promising but it will take time for gene therapy to become a viable treatment for Canavan disease.

Prognosis

The life span and progression of Canavan disease is variable and may be partially dependent on the type of medical care provided and other genetic risk factors. Most people with Canavan disease live into their teens although some die in infancy or survive into their 20’s and 30’s. There can be a high degree of variability even within families; some families report having one child die in infancy and another die in adulthood. Although different ASPA gene changes are associated with the production of different amounts of enzyme, the severity of the disease does not appear to be related to the type of ASPA gene change. It is, therefore, impossible to predict the lifespan of a particular individual with Canavan disease.

Resources

BOOKS

Scriver, C. R., et al., eds. The Metabolic and Molecular Basis of

Inherited Disease. New York: The McGraw Hill Companies, 1995.

PERIODICALS

ACOG committee opinion. “Screening for canavan disease.” Number 212, November 1998. Committee on Genetics. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.

International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 65, no. 1 (April 1999): 91–92.

Besley, G. T. N., et al. “Prenatal Diagnosis of Canavan Disease–Problems and Dilemmas.” Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease 22, no. 3 (May 1999): 263–66.

Matalon, Reuben, and Kimberlee Michals-Matalon. “Chemistry and Molecular Biology of Canavan Disease.” Neurochemical Research 24, no. 4 (April 1999): 507–13.

Matalon, Reuben, and Kimberlee Michals-Matalon. “Recent Advances in Canavan Disease.” Advances In Pediatrics 46 (1999): 493–506.

Matalon, Reuben, Kimberlee Michals-Matalon, and Rajinder Kaul. “Canavan Disease.” Handbook of Clinical Neurology 22, no. 66 (1999): 661–69.

Traeger, Evelyn, and Isabelle Rapin. “The clinical course of Canavan disease.” Pediatric Neurology 18, no. 3 (1999): 207–12.

ORGANIZATIONS

Canavan Foundation. 320 Central Park West, Suite 19D, New York, NY 10025. [phone].

Canavan Research Foundation. Fairwood Professional Building, New Fairwood, CT 06812. [phone]. [e-mail]. http://www.canavan.org .

National Foundation for Jewish Genetic Diseases, Inc. 250 Park Ave., Suite 1000, New York, NY 10017. [phone].http://www.nfjgd.org .

National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases Association. 2001 Beacon St., Suite 204, Brighton, MA 02135. (800) 9068723. [e-mail]. http://www.ntsad

.org .

WEBSITES

American College of Medical Genetics. Position Statement on Carrier Testing for Canavan Disease. FASEB.http://www.faseb.org/genetics/acmg/pol-31.htm . (January 1998)

Matalon, Reuben. “Canavan disease.” GeneClinics. http://www

.geneclinics.org/profiles/canavan/details.html? . (20 July 1999).

Matalon, Reuben and Kimberlee Michals-Matalon. “Spongy Degeneration of the Brain, Canavan Disease: Biochemical and Molecular Findings.” Frontiers in Biosience.http://www.bioscience.org/2000/v5/d/matalon/fulltext

.htm . (March 2000)

McKusick, Victor A. “Canavan disease.” OMIM—Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih

.gov/htbin-post/Omim/dispmim?271900 . (December 8, 1999).

Lisa Maria Andres, MS, CGC

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