sc12-13 / sc1021_exc12

Examiners’ commentaries 2012

Approaching the question

Here the Examiners required candidates to develop their answers around the central sociological question as to why societies change. We therefore expected candidates to choose one of the traditional sociologists who addressed the key questions of social change and social stability.

The idea of contribution is very important – how did the chosen theory contribute to our understanding of how and when societies change?

Poorer and more basic answers in 2012 produced descriptions of the general theories with some attempt to show how the sociologists demonstrated the problem of social change.

Better answers demonstrated the key attributes of each theory in relation to change:

•What were the causes of social change (ontological issues)?

•How do societies change?

•What were the major assumptions on which the theory of social change was based; namely, again, the ontological assumption of the chosen theorist.

•Did the chosen theory attempt to predict future change; namely, Marx, or did it describe social changes in the past; namely, Weber and, if so, did the findings help us to understand how societies change?

•Importantly and finally, are these theories relevant to our understanding of the modern world? Here the material on globalisation would have been useful.

Candidates are reminded that if a question is allocated 12 marks or more that they must write a short essay and spend at least twenty minutes on this. They should also remember that the Examiners change the topic that appears in the theory question each year and so candidates should not attempt to learn answers to this question by heart.

Section B

Answer the question in this section (25 marks).

Reading for this question

The subject guide provides the basic reading for this section. In order to answer the questions on globalisation you should revise and be able to use the theories of social change covered in Chapters 3 and 4 of the subject guide in particular.

In addition Waters, M. Globalization. (London: Routledge, 2001) second edition [ISBN 9780415238540] may be used and indeed provides

the useful theoretical background as well as some empirical material. Candidates should keep up-to-date with major international events and draw on them to illustrate their answers.

All three textbooks have good chapters on this topic in the newest editions.

Giddens (2009), Chapter 4.

Macionis and Plummer (2011), takes a global perspective throughout their text and Chapter 2 ‘Thinking Globally: a global perspective on Sociology’ is particularly useful.

Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 16.

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SC1021 Principles of sociology

Question 2

Either

To what extent is globalization a consequence of social changes occurring locally?

Approaching the question

This question requires candidates to use their knowledge of the different perspectives they have learnt about and to illustrate their answers with examples of change in societies and in world politics and economies.

Candidates should indicate a clear understanding of this question, and indicate this in their introduction. The different theories indicated in the subject guide and in Waters (2001) will offer different answers to this question which will reflect their particular perspective. Taking a Weberian perspective on social change, globalisation may be seen simply as a sum (aggregate) of changes, behaviours, actions that have taken place in different societies and which can be described as globalisation. Is globalisation something that acts as an ‘external actor’ and societies are powerless to prevent its effects; namely, the structural functionalist approach of Robertson or the Marxist approach of Sklair?

Candidates should indicate what changes have occurred locally, that is, within a state. Here Chapter 7 of the subject guide would be particularly useful. The suggestions by Ohmae and Sklair that states are increasingly weakened by activities of international business and commerce would be particularly useful in answering this question. States have to ensure that the borders remain open to the activities of non-state actors. Hence globalisation is not just caused by local changes but by transnational actors and supranational organisations. Mann suggests that states have not been weakened or strengthened by changes happening globally.

Sklair and others would suggest that capitalism as a world system has transformed itself and is now a global capitalist system affecting all societies.

There are those like Barber who suggest that the changes represent Americanisation rather than globalisation. Here the changes occur in America but have effects globally. Changes in China effect changes in many societies; for example, Africa and Pakistan, but these changes are not globalisation but are caused by changes locally in both America and China.

While this question can be answered using the traditional typology of the sceptics, transformationalists, and hyperglobalists, candidates must address the key puzzle in the question. Is globalisation the sum of states’ aggregate behaviour, or something that is transforming and occurring above and across nation states who are powerless to prevent such changes; that is, Giddens’ unstoppable juggernaut?

or

What are the arguments for and against the idea of the emergence of a ‘global society’?

Approaching the question

This question required candidates to address the question of the emergence of a global society by indicating how the recent changes, in finance, world politics, and nationalist movements have or have not resulted in a society which could be considered to be ‘global’.

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Examiners’ commentaries 2012

A good introduction should address the idea of a ‘global society’. What would a global society look like? One of the most important elements of such an answer would be to consider the position of the nation state. Here the work of Mann and Sklair, and Strange could be compared (see Chapter 7 of the subject guide). Have recent events such as the Arab Spring resulted in nation states losing their sovereignty to international organisations or alliances? The recent financial crises have had different effects, they have effected national governments and nations differently. Have societies become increasingly open to financial flows, migration, etc., or is there evidence of growing protectionism and trade wars?

Good answers should demonstrate a knowledge of the debates/arguments on the inevitability of a global society; however, they must address

the topic in this question and not simply list the views of the sceptics, transformationalists and hyperglobalists. Excellent answers would develop these positions and organise their answers around the concept of a global society and what it would look like. Candidates should discuss the different ideas in circulation as to why, or why not, global society has developed; or is, or is not developing. In such answers candidates may suggest that whereas there is some degree of economic globalisation, the state is still powerful and retains some sovereignty. Whereas the evidence on cultural globalisation and Castells’ work would suggest that there

is a large degree of global activity and thus, many of these theorists – particularly Robertson and Castells – would suggest that ‘world issues’ have taken over from national concerns.

Section C

Answer ONE question from this section (25 marks).

Candidates are reminded that the material in Section C draws on the material from Sections A and B.

Question 3

Compare and contrast AT LEAST TWO major sociological accounts of the role of religion in society.

Reading for this question

Subject guide, Chapter 4 for background on the relevant theories; Chapter 12 for coverage of religion.

Giddens (2009), Chapter 16.

Macionis and Plummer (2011), Chapter 19. Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 11.

To answer this question candidates must read beyond the subject guide. The basic textbooks provide good background on this topic. Chapter

4 in the subject guide (Marx, Weber and Durkheim) will provide the theoretical underpinnings to answer questions on religion. Candidates must have a strong understanding of these theories – especially Marxism, structural functionalism and Weberian sociology – if they are to do well.

Approaching the question

Candidates should address the idea of ‘the role of religion in society’. This can be taken to mean the function of religion in society, or simply what religions ‘do’; namely, a substantive use of the term ‘role’. In all cases candidates should indicate what is meant by religion and the concept

of religion should be operationalised in the introduction. Religion can encompass religious belief; religious practice; the role of religion in social

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SC1021 Principles of sociology

change; its role in social stability. However, some attention should be given to the secularisation debates; namely, the view that religion may be losing its role in society.

Candidates should identify the theorists/theories that they will compare and contrast in the introduction and each paragraph should compare one aspect of the different theories.

Most candidates in 2012 concentrated on Weber and Marx. Here the role of religion in social change was the major aspect to be compared and this aspect constituted the major part of the essays.

Durkheim was another sociologist whose theories address the role of religion directly in terms of the functions it has for society. Taking a Marxist approach, in comparison, a question could be posed – functional for whom? For society? For capitalism/capitalists? For classes and individuals? The interpretivist approach would stress the role of religion in creating an identity and a sense of belonging.

Question 4

Critically discuss AT LEAST ONE sociological account of ‘race’ and ethnicity.

Reading for this question

Subject guide, Chapter 10.

Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 6, section on theories of race and identity.

Macionis and Plummer (2011), Chapter 11. Giddens (2009), Chapter 15, pp.642–43.

Approaching the question

The subject guide introduces different accounts/approaches rather than different theorists, and candidates would have been rewarded for writing a good answer by either describing and discussing good sociological theory

– for example, Rex, Cox, etc. – or by describing a particular school, such as black feminist, neo-Marxist, Weberian or new ethnicity.

A good starting point would be to indicate what a sociological account of race and ethnicity would be, indicating the meaning of the concepts in the chosen account and identifying its antecedents – culture or material/

economic ‘causes’; questions of identity and exclusion; different racisms, etc.

Excellent answers would demonstrate a clear understanding of the account and should be illustrated with relevant examples. The textbooks have many good accounts, but candidates must be able to provide good criticisms of the chosen account or different explanations which may call into question the assumptions of the account chosen. The subject guide is organised so that the developments in this topic are expressed as criticisms of the previous schools and thus if a candidate had chosen an early account it would have been easy to critically assess it as required in the question.

Question 5

Contemporary societies are defined by social class. Explain and discuss.

Reading for this question

Subject guide, Chapter 11, in particular Sections 11.1.3 and 11.2.1. Chapter 4, sections on Marx and Weber are also important background reading.

Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 17 ‘Work, employment and leisure’ provides a useful background and Chapter 18 indicates the necessary

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Examiners’ commentaries 2012

theoretical concepts of equality, merit and exclusion. Chapter 20, pp.793– 805 would also be helpful.

Macionis and Plummer (2011), Chapters 8, 9, 10 and 15 take a global perspective.

Giddens (2009), Chapter 11 provides a thorough overview of this topic.

Approaching the question

It is important for candidates to address the question directly. Here the Examiners were looking for an explanation and discussion as to

whether contemporary (present day) society can be explained by people’s class position and what this would entail. Therefore, the statement

in the question should be carefully examined and the issue addressed as to whether the important structural aspect of society is defined by class rather than other aspects; such as age, gender and ethnicity. The

problematic issue as to what constitutes class should also be addressed in the introduction.

Chapter 11 in the subject guide indicates the importance of looking at globalisation processes, and here Sklair’s work on the transnational

capitalist class could be used to support the statement in the essay title.

Candidates should attempt to address the question of class directly, either by applying the classical theories to present day society successfully, or by using the material in the subject guide well, by way of providing evidence and demonstrating an understanding of the problematic concept of class. You should indicate the utility of the theories in explaining inequalities in society and demonstrate why they may not be useful.

The subjective dimensions of class should also be addressed – do individuals define themselves in terms of class? Do they vote along class lines? Is a person’s class position the most important aspect in defining their individual life chances? Candidates should also address the issue of justice as indicated in the subject guide.

Question 6

What contribution can sociology make to our understanding of the operation of organisations in society?

Reading for this question

Chapter 4 of the subject guide, particularly the sections on Marx, Weber and Parsons – but also the section on interactionism – are a good place to start. Chapter 13 ‘Power in society’ is also useful background but this question does not just relate to power. Chapter 14 ‘The sociology of organisations’ is also key. The subject guide provides the background to

how organisation theorists have built on the work of sociologists and other approaches.

Giddens (2009), Chapter 18.

Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 14.

Marcionis and Plummer (2008), Chapter 6 ‘Organisations and the rise of the network society’.

Approaching the question

Candidates will need to draw on the knowledge presented to them in Chapters 1, 2 and 4 of the subject guide. You will need to demonstrate your knowledge of sociological problems in respect of organisations and how sociologists find out about them. You will need the four main problems that you learn about in this course – the problem of social

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SC1021 Principles of sociology

change; the problem of social stability; the problem of social inequality; and the issues regarding self and identity. All these can be applied successfully to the operation/role/function of organisations in society. The subject guide concentrates on four general theories – the elements of each theory can be used to illustrate an answer to this question!

Candidates should first indicate what a sociology of organisations would involve, and then outline how sociologists explain the structure and workings of organisations and how they investigate organisations. Here the work of Goffman on asylums and other total institutions could be used, and the ideas of Beck on risk society in a modern/postmodern world. Giddens could be used to discuss questions of identity.

An excellent answer would address the idea of ‘contribution’ – do these theories help us to understand: how organisations operate; and how they adapt and change? Do other theories; that is, those introduced in Chapter 14, particularly rational choice theories, contribute more to our understanding of the role of organisations in society, particularly in relation to the organisation and its environment?

Question 7

Compare and contrast AT LEAST TWO major sociological theories of power.

Reading for this question

Subject guide, Chapters 4 and 13. Macionis and Plummer (2011), Chapter 16.

Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 15, pp.558–66 and Chapter 20 pp.786–92.

Bilton, T. et al. Introductory sociology. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) fourth edition [ISBN 9780333945711]. Chapter 10 provides a good account of the different theories of power.

Lee, D. and H. Newby The problem of sociology. (London: Hutchinson, 1983) [ISBN 9780415094535] (available on VLE), Chapter 5.

Approaching the question

This is an increasingly popular topic but it involves more than a description of Lukes’ ‘three faces of power’. ‘Sociological theories’ can be taken to be a set of theories rather than a theory from a particular sociologist.

This question asks candidates to compare and contrast at least two theories of power. Candidates should indicate their chosen theories in the introduction. It is easier to concentrate on two theories than to deal with more. While Lukes can be used to good effect to criticise, illustrate, and compare the theories, it is important for candidates to answer the question directly. Theories could involve the work of two or more sociologists or different paradigms such as a Marxist theory; a Weberian theory or a structuralist theory of power.

Candidates are reminded that they should address the power of the state and non-state institutions in their comparisons of the theories.

The following would provide a good set of issues to use in the comparison of the theories chosen:

•How have sociologist/s defined the concept? Is it robust enough? Is power considered to be a system resource (Foucault/Parsons); the capacity to achieve outcomes; a property which is ‘owned’?

•Problems of agency and structure.

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Examiners’ commentaries 2012

•How can power be measured (epistemological problems)? Lukes’ work would be useful here.

•How have sociologists explained the sources of power? What gives people power to achieve outcomes, or power over others?

•How do sociologists explain the operation of state power?

•What contribution have sociologists made to our understanding of society and the operation of power in society?

Question 8

How have sociologists explained the gender gap in pay?

Reading for this question

Subject guide, Chapter 11 ‘Social inequality and social injustice’ and Chapter 9 ‘Gender’. Candidates studying the topic of gender would be wise to read the chapters on power and inequality and injustice as background reading. For this question, for example, candidates would benefit from knowing about the differences in pay between men and women.

The main textbooks all have chapters on gender differences. Although this question is about income inequality, candidates are reminded that if they choose this question they must study all aspects of the topic.

Macionis and Plummer (2011), Chapter 12 ‘The gender order and sexualities’ provides some theoretical background.

Giddens (2009), Chapter 14, pp.614–19. Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapters 5, 9 and 17.

Approaching the question

Candidates should indicate in the introduction which sociologists or which set of theories they will be using in their answers. They can choose classical sociology – Weber’s concepts of status and social closure could be used to good effect; Parsons’ theories about differential male and female roles; Marxist theories, etc. The subject guide contains good descriptions of the different feminisms and the relevant sociologists; each one having a different set of explanations for the gender gap in pay. Section 9.3 ‘Families and work’, material on work and the labour market and the associated readings, provide the necessary background to answer this question. Answers should address the processes that result in pay differentials.

Some examples would include:

•General theories of patriarchy (for example, Sylvia Walby), the move from private patriarchy to the public sphere.

•The role of the family and different socialisation practices.

•Sexual division of labour and its utility – Marxist/feminist theories.

•The role of the state (for example, Rosemary Crompton).

•Differential human capital – resulting from childrearing and the dominant childrearing practices.

•Social closure.

A good answer would indicate that whereas the data on gender differences in pay demonstrate that most men in most societies earn more than most women, it is not true in all cases.

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SC1021 Principles of sociology

Examiners’ commentaries 2012

SC1021 Principles of sociology – Zone B

Important note

This commentary reflects the examination and assessment arrangements for this course in the academic year 2011–12. The format and structure of the examination may change in future years, and any such changes will be publicised on the virtual learning environment (VLE).

Information about the subject guide

Unless otherwise stated, all cross-references will be to the latest version of the subject guide (2011).

Comments on specific questions

Candidates should answer THREE of the following EIGHT questions: QUESTION 1 of Section A (50 marks), QUESTION 2 of Section B (25 marks) and ONE question from Section C (25 marks). Candidates are strongly advised to divide their time accordingly.

Section A

Answer all six parts of question 1 (50 marks in total).

Reading for this question

For each part of this question, we have indicated the relevant sections in the core textbooks which will provide some background.

Macionis, J. and K. Plummer Sociology: a global introduction. (Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2011) fifth edition [ISBN 9780273727910].

Giddens, A. Sociology. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009) sixth edition [ISBN 9780745643588].

Fulcher, J. and J. Scott Sociology. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) fourth edition [ISBN 9780199563753].

Question 1

‘The concept of social structure has been used by different sociologists to describe and explain the operation and the nature of social institutions and social strata that make up society. Society in which people are born, live and die. It can also be used to explain the nature of social relationships in society and how individuals interact with each other.’

How have sociologists explained the ways in which individuals learn to relate to each other and become members of society? In your answer refer to the work of at least two sociologists you have learned about on this course. (8 marks)

Reading for this question

Subject guide, Chapters 1 and 4.

Macionis and Plummer (2011), Chapter 7 ‘Micro-sociology: ‘The social construction of everyday life’.

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Examiners’ commentaries 2012

Giddens (2009), Chapters 7 ‘Social interaction and everyday life’ and Chapter 8 ‘The life course’.

Fulcher and Scott (2011), Chapter 4 ‘Sociology, identity and interaction’.

Approaching the question

This question relates to the material developed in Chapter 1 of the subject guide. The second part of the chapter is devoted to two theories of socialisation. Most candidates in 2012, as expected, chose the examples of Parsons and Mead which are described there.

Candidates who concentrated on definitions of socialisation and were able to describe the theories of Parsons and Mead were able to score up to six marks. Better answers addressed the question more directly and related their answer to the idea of ‘social roles’ and social institutions, using Mead’s work to explain the process of socialisation, by taking the role of ‘the other’ and a knowledge of Parsons (which is explained in Chapter

4 of the subject guide). The Examiners would expect candidates using the theories of Parsons to relate their answers directly to the functions of socialisation and its ‘ends’.

Where candidates were able to demonstrate a knowledge of structural functionalism and the importance of social institutions in defining roles for individuals, they achieved very good marks.

The stimulus paragraph invited candidates to think about the role of socialisation in relation to social institutions (again in Chapter 1 of the subject guide). Very good answers would have addressed these concepts directly and would have provided some explanation as to the role and importance of social institutions in determining the nature of social relationships together with some reference to the expectations surrounding the roles that people ‘play’ in society.

Excellent answers recognised the processes involved in socialisation practices, and were able to differentiate and demonstrate the differences in the approaches.

Some candidates used the ideas of Marx and Durkheim/Parsons very well and these answers were rewarded with high marks if the candidates demonstrated a good knowledge of concepts such as ‘social integration’ ‘ideology’ and ‘moral regulation’ (this material is available in Chapter 4 of the subject guide).

g.What are the key arguments for and against viewing sociology as a scientific discipline?

Reading for this question

In answering this question, candidates should demonstrate that science is both an empirical and theoretical enterprise. Therefore they should address the issue of thinking scientifically and doing research in a scientific manner as opposed to common sense. Fulcher and Scott (2011) address the question directly in their first chapter where they explain that sociology may be considered a science but in addition outline the arguments as to whether it can be considered as a natural science. This is a very useful chapter. Giddens (2009) has a short section in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 in Macionis and Plummer (2011) has a general overview but a much more thorough discussion about science generally in Chapter 27.

Approaching the question

Candidates should first attempt to question the question; namely, what is meant by ‘a scientific discipline?’ Here candidates should address the issues on both sides of the debate but also suggest that whatever position

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SC1021 Principles of sociology

is held, most sociologists believe that theories should be developed on the basis of scientific logic and rigour. These theories should be tested using the criteria of objectivity, standardisation, transparency, reliability and validity (see Chapter 2 of the subject guide). Candidates should outline the reasons given by those who suggest that it is possible to use the quantitative methods based on the methods of the natural sciences – naturalism. In addition they should outline why these sociologists distrust the interpretivist methods which aim to understand ‘the meanings behind social action’ as being too subjective and unreliable.

Answers should also include those sociologists who suggest that the methods of the natural sciences are inappropriate; for example,

sociologists are part of the social world they are attempting to explain/ interpret and the subjects of research are not like inanimate objects and will react to being investigated.

Here candidates could use a particular example to illustrate the points made for example by Durkheim’s Suicide. (1952) and its critics, J. Douglas and J. Maxwell Atkinson (see Chapter 4 of the subject guide).

Chapter 3 introduces the main theories of knowledge and candidates could use this material to answer the question by comparing the differences between positivism and realism as against interpretivism and social constructionism. Candidates must, however, outline why these theorists suggest that it is possible or impossible to use the methods of the natural sciences and why this should be the case. It is not enough to describe the theories of knowledge without giving the arguments for their perspective on this important question.

h.The 2011 UK census found that 51% of people in the UK believed in God, a decrease of 30% from the 2001 census. What methodological problems arise

when sociologists attempt to interpret such data?

(8 marks)

Reading for this question

Chapter 2 of the subject guide, pp.56–62.

Giddens (2009), Chapter 2, the section on surveys.

Fulcher and Scott (2011) have an interesting section on the census pp.271–76 and Chapter 2 addresses the topic of surveys and the problems of using secondary data.

Macionis and Plummer (2011) have a complete section on this topic, Chapter 3, Part 5.

Approaching the question

This question was based on Chapter 2 and 3 of the subject guide. Censuses are held every 10 years in many countries in the world. They not only count everyone who lives in the country but they record attributes and some of the beliefs of a population. A questionnaire is sent to every household and this information is useful for national governments in their planning and policy making.

Therefore an answer to this question should involve candidates indicating the problems with questionnaires in measuring the data on religious belief particularly in relation to the fact that in using such data in research there may be problems with the meaning and interpretation of the concepts used in such surveys.

The subject guide has a section on the problems of using surveys and questionnaires:

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