1.A short outline of the translatology history. The principal theoretical works on translation. Many writers and scholars of the past and present have practiсed the art of translation, and their views differ.  Translators of the ancient world discussed the extent of correspondence between the ST and the TT. For Romans translating literary and philosophical works meant looting those elements of the Greek culture that would enhance the aesthetic demensions of their own culture. Semantic meanings of the original were not a primary concern of the translator. Cicero proclaimed that he translated ideas and their forms and was therefore less interested in a word-for- word rendering of the ST. 

The dominant characteristic of European translation theories of the Renaissance was an effort to "‘enrich” the TL by surpassing the original. However, early Bible translations were literal and were considered as models for translators. French poet and translator Etienne Dolet (1509-1546) articulated a sort of “normative theory of translation” where he gave an account of the main translation principles.

Later, in 1790, Tytler suggested his translation requirements. In Tytler’s words, the translation must be a complete transcript of ideas of the original and a replica of its style and manner of writing. In Russia and Ukraine the controversy between the adherents of the strict word-for-word translation (Viasemskiy, Fet) and those who favoured free translation (Zhukovskiy, Skovoroda) continued unabated. In general, all theoretical assumptions forwarded by translators before the XXth century dealt with only surface translation aspects.

Theory of translation began to acquire a scholarly shape in the middle of the XXth century. Earlier translators believed that study of the linguistic aspects of translation was not sufficient for the art of translation. But the XXth century brought the necessity of translating business, commercial and political matters where the peculiarities of the author’s style were not of paramount importance. Roman Jacobson has promptly stressed the links of translatology and linguistics: (that) mutual cooperation benefits both to the theory of translation and to linguistics. Linguists realized that studying translation process would help them solve linguistic problems. Moreover, the XXth century dictated a necessity of textbooks on translation which covered linguistic and extralinguistic factors of translating process. It also promoted researching linguistic and psychological aspects of translation.

The era of serious translation studies was started by Prof. Retsker who proved regularity of selecting this or that variant of translation. He suggested three types of correspondences: equivalents, analogies and adequate replacements. In 1953 Prof. Fyodorov published “Introduction to the Theory of Translation” where he grounded not only the necessity of translatology but also its devision into general theory of translation. In 1958 French theorists of translation published “Comparative Stylistics of French and English” in which the comparative analysis of these two languages aimed at finding translation equivalents.  In 1964 there appeared two more works which benefited to the development of translatology. They are “Toward the Science of Translating” by E.Nida and “Basics of General and Machine Translation” by I.I.Revzin and Rozentsveig. E.Nida suggested that translating process may be described as a series of transformations.

1970s-1980s turned to be very fruitful for the Soviet theorists who contributed greatly to translatology. It’s hard to overestimate the significance of two books by Prof. Komissarov ‘The Word about Translation” and “Linguistics of Translation” where different aspects of linguistic analysis were brought together as a single whole. Prof. Barkhudarov in his book “Language and Translation" tackles the main problems concerning different types of meanings (referential, pragmatic, internal linguistic and grammatical). Among foreign linguists who puslished their works on translation problems we should mention Herman (“The Manipulation of Literature”, 1985), Neubert (“Text and Translation”, 1985), Jaques Derrida (“Des Tours de Babel”, 1980), William Frawly and others. Neubert’s ‘Text and Translation” is the most thoughtful work on the application of discourse analysis to translation.

2. Pragmatic adaptation.

Translating an advertisement or notice the translator always thinks toward whom his translation isto be oriented. Sometimes you not only have to guess what type of readership is your translation will interest or attract you have ti swivel your translation toward the readership to pay constant attention to the effect of positive, negative and value-free words. Therefore, a translation should involve a kind of pragmatic adaptation to prove the preservation of the original communicative effect. This adaptation should ensure that the text of translation conveys the same attitude to the reported facts as does the original text it means that the comical should not be replaced by the tragical one. Translation of the maintenance instruction is considered good if after reading a technician will be able to operate the appropriate piece of machinery correctly. E. Nide introduced the concept of “ dynamic equivalence” which should be judged not against the original but against the reader’s reaction.

3. Aspects of translating process. The situational and semantic-transformational models of the TP. Translating process includes two mental processes - understanding and verbalization. First of all the translator understands the contents of the ST, reduces the information it contains to his own mental program, then he develops this program into the TT.  A translation model is a conventional representation of the process of translating describing mental operations by which the ST or some parts of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator. The situational (or referential) model is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation. In the situational modal this intermediate level is extralinguistic. It is the described reality, the verbal representation of the facts of life. The process of translating consists in the translator getting beyond the original text to the actual situation described in it. This is the first step of the process, i.e. the breakthrough to the situation. The second step for the translator is to describe the situation in the TL. This model includes both linguistic and extralinguistic factors. As Prof. Miram has stated, according to the transformational approach translating is viewed as the transformation of objects and structures of the SL into those of the TL. Transformation in translation is any replacement of a SL unit by its equivalent in the TL. Transformations may be observed at the phonological, orthographic, morphological, lexical, syntactic, stylistic, pragmatic levels. At the phonological level substitution of phonemes occurs. This is observed through such way of translation as transcribing. Transformations at the orthographic level are performed during transliteration. At the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-changing) ot the SL are transformed into those of the TL. For instance, English word-building suffixes "-tion , “-sion ” may be transformed in the process of translation into Ukrainian "-ція ”, "-ка ”: revolution — революція, preparation - підготовка. At the lexical level we observe transformations ot word combinations, substitutions of idioms, like: in blue mood - не в dy'ci. Syntactic transformations comprise a broad range of structural changes, from the reversal of the word order in a sentence to the division and integration of sentences in the process of translation.

4. Lexico-semantic transformations in translation. Transformation is any change of the Source text at any level (syntactic, semantic, lexical) of the language during translation.  Lexical transformations change the semantic core of a translated word. They can be classified into the following groups: 1.Lexical substitution, or putting one word in place of another. It often results from the different semantic structures of the source language and target language words. can be of several subtypes: a) Specification, or substituting words with a wider meaning with words of a narrower meaning: Will you do the room? – Ты уберешься в комнате?

b) Generalization, or substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider meaning: People don’t like to be stared at. – Людям не нравится, когда на них смотрят. c) Modulation is a logical development of the notion expressed by the word: But outside it was raining. -– Но на улице шел дождь. 2. Compensation is a deliberate introduction of some additional element in the target text to make up for the loss of a similar element in the source text. The main reason for this transformation is a vocabulary lacuna in the target language. For example, one of the Galsworthy’s characters was called a leopardess. But there is no one-word equivalent of the same stylistic coloring in Russian. Therefore, the translator compensated the word by using the word тигрица to characterize the lady. 

3.Metaphoric transformations are based on transferring the meaning due to the similarity of notions. The target language can re-metaphorize a word or a phrase by using the same image (Don’t dirty your hands with that money! – Не марай рук этими деньгами!).

5. Aspects of translating process. The communicational, denotative and distributional models of translation. A translation model is a conventional representation of the process of translating describing mental operations by which the ST or some parts of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator. The communicational theory of translation was suggested by O.Kade and is based on the notions of communication and thesaurus. Communication may be defined as an act of sending and receiving some information which is called a message. Information may be of any kind (e.g. gestures), but we shall limit ourselves to verbal communication only. Naturally, while communicating we inform others about something we know and we use our system of interrelated data which is called a thesaurus. We shall distinguish between two kinds of thesauruses in verbal communication: language thesaurus and subject thesaurus. Language thesaurus is a system of our knowledge which we use to formulate a message, whereas subject thesaurus is a system of our knowledge about the contents of the message.  In monolingual communication there are two actors, sender and recepient, and each of them uses two thesauruses. In bilingual communication there three actors: sender, recepient and intermediary (translator). The translator has two language thesauruses (of the SL and the TL) and performs two functions: decodes the source message and encodes the target one to be received by the recipient (terminal user of the translation). According to the denotative approach the process of translation consists of the following steps: • translator reads/ hears a message in the SL; • translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message;

• translator formulates a message in the TL relevant to the above-mentioned denotatum and concept. According to the denotative model of translation the relationship between the source and target word forms is occasional rather than regular. e.g A stitch in time saves nine. - Гарна ложка до обіду.

The distributional model of translation developed by G.Miram seems also appropriate for the description of translation since it rests on such an objective modeling basis as distribution. 1.Linguistic distribution is an ability of language units (parts of words, words and word combinations) to occur in the text together. 2.Distribution pattern reflects meaning and combinatorial potential of lexical units, 3.Distribution of lexical units in the text reflects the fragmentation of the real world in human mind. For instance, the distributional set of the word "stone" (a set of words with which this word occurs together in the text) embraces such lexical units as “heavy”, “brown”, "gray", “round”, 'throw ", "grind " etc. So, according to the distribution approach translation is a process of matching the distribution patterns of the source and target language units.