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1. Stylistics and its objectives. Definitions of style. Subdivisions of stylistics. It gets more complicated when we talk about the object of research and the material of studies of stylistics. The term itself – stylistics - came into existence not too long ago. However, the scope of problems and the object of stylistic study go as far back as ancient schools of rhetoric and poetics. All expressive means (the object of its research) were divided into 3 large groups: -Tropes, -Rhythm (Figures of Speech), and -Types of Speech. stylistics is a branch of linguistics, which studies the principles, and the effect of choice and usage of different language elements in rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of communication. I.R.Galperin asserts that stуlistiсs, sometimes called l i n g u o s t y l i s t i c s, is a branch of general linguistics that mainly deals with two interdependent objectives: - the investigation of the special language media which secure the desirable effect of the utterance, and - the investigation of certain types of texts which (due to the choice and arrangement of language means) are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication. These two tasks of stylistics are clearly discernible as separate fields of its investigation. The special media are called stylistic devices and expressive means (SD’s and EM’s); the types of texts are called functional styles (FS’s). Stylistics as a branch of linguistics overlaps with such adjacent disciplines as theory of information, theory of communication, literature studies, psychology, sociology, logic and some others. Stylistics, as the term implies, deals with styles. The word style is derived from the Latin word ‘stilus’ (‘stylus’) or Greek ‘stylos’ which meant a short stick sharp at one end and flat at the other used by the Romans for writing on wax tablets. Later it was associated with the manner of writing. Today it can be applied in any activity which can be performed in more than one way (manner), verbal communication including. In linguistics the word ‘style’ has acquired so many interpretations that it gives ground for ambiguity. Style is frequently regarded as something that belongs exclusively to the plane of expression and not to the plane of content because one and the same idea can be expressed in different ways. S. Chatman defines style ‘as a product of individual choices and patterns of choices among linguistic possibilities. Style is often understood as a technique of expression, i.e. the ability to write clearly, correctly and in a manner calculated to interest the reader. Style in this sense deals with the normalized forms of the language. The generic term ‘style’ is often identified with the individual style of an author, or the authorial style. I.R. Galperin believes that the individual style of an author is only one of the applications of the term ‘style’. Style is frequently treated as the embellishment of language. Language and style as embellishment are regarded as separate bodies when style is imposed on language for artistic effect. The subdivision of linguostylistics is based on the level-forming approach: sounds, words, phrases and sentences, paragraphs and texts are studied from the point of view of their expressive capacities, or stylistic function. Нere belong: Lexical stylistics (stylistic lexicology). Phonostylistics (stylistic phonetics). Grammatical stylistics. (Morphological stylistics, Syntactical stylistics) Functional stylistics (the theory of functional styles). Text stylistics is one more branch of stylistic research.

2. The Religious style. The style of religion is one of the recognized varieties of English distinguished by certain functions and a specific sphere of communication. The main aims of the religious functional style - expressing religious belief on public occasions, explaining the existing world, regulating individual/group behaviour. Elements of the religious style may be used also in literature; they as well can penetrate the daily colloquial speech in the form of allusions, quotations, set expressions and create humour. The religious style is realized in numerous forms and practices: the texts from the Bible, books of prayers and religious hymns, common prayers, sermons, songs. According to D. Crystal and D. Davy (1969), it falls into at least three substyles: 1) the biblical substyle, 2) the liturgical substyle, and 3) the theological discourse substyle. The core of the religious style is formed by the biblical substyle, which seriously influences all subspheres of religious communication. Biblical quotations come through all other substyles. Reading from the Scriptures play the main part in most liturgical services. The biblical substyle is of particular interest to stylistics due to its metaphorical (figurative) language. Stylistically relevant is also the fact that the texts of the Bible (73 books) are available in many variants. Phonological and graphological peculiarities The characteristic feature of a prayer spoken in unison by the congregation is monotony and frequent level tones. Prayers spoken by one person are also characterized by narrowness of pitch range and drop in the pitch at the end. Though one speaker may vary the pitch level, as well as slow down and increase the pace of articulation. Priests do it to distinguish some words of particular importance from the rest of the text. In writing religious texts can be marked by special typographical techniques (italics, bold type, different colours, small type, etc.) that make the corresponding parts stand out. Capitalization draws attention to some important words (e.g. Lord, God, Father, Son, The Holy Spirit, etc.). Paragraphs can be numbered. Grammatical features Syntax is characterized by -the use of complete, complex and compound sentences; -the tendency towards coordination (within the sentence as well as within nominal and verbal groups); -frequent occurrence of inverted word order, detachment, parallel constructions (accompanied by lexical and root repetition), anaphora, epiphora, polysyndeton, etc. Other peculiarities are the use of the archaic pronouns (e.g. thou, thy, etc.) and verb forms (e.g loveth; thou asketh, etc.), the use of the direct address.Vocabulary The religious style is distinguished by rich imagery created by similes, metaphors, metonymies, epithets, etc. In old versions there are plenty archaic words (e.g. a publican for a person who collected taxes).Besides, the words and combinations used in religious texts belong to the formal or elevated layers (e.g. to glorify, to have mercy, sacred, etc.). The language of religious texts is also marked by frequent oppositions (e.g. seek – find, ask – receive). Theology operates special terms (e.g. prophecy, virtue, sin, vice, sacrifice, etc.) – religious vocabulary that is connected with the concept of God.

3. Classification of functional styles. Different points of view. It is the notion of style that has to do with how we use the language under specific circumstances for a specific purpose. T.A. Znamenskaya believes that the existent definitions of the notion ‘style’ intersect with 3 meanings: 1. A variety of the national language traditionally used in one of the identifiable spheres of life that is characterized by a particular set of linguistic features, including vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.-the degree of formality - social, occupational and regional varieties. E.g. neutral, upper-class, literary (high). 2. A generally accepted linguistic identity of oral and written units of discourse (speech). Such units demonstrate style not only in a special choice of linguistic means but in their very arrangement, or composition. 3. An individual manner of expression The norm is dictated by the social roles of the participants of communication. This brings us to the conclusion that norms are flexible and varied. In Soviet and Post Soviet - the theory of functional styles, or functional stylistics (V.V. Vinogradov, I.V. Arnold, and others). The term comes right from the consideration of such notions as function (the purpose or aim of communication), sphere of communication and norm in their relation to speech varieties and their classification. Classifications of functional styles.Besides, styles are not homogeneous and fall into several variants all having some central point of resemblance. They are called substyles, that later fall into genres, and change in quality and quantity. I.V. Arnold suggested a classification of FS according the basic linguistic function they fulfill. She started with a kind of abstract notion termed neutral style. It has no distinctive features and its function is to provide a standard background for the other styles. The other – 'real' styles are divided into two groups: 1. Colloquial styles: literary colloquial; familiar colloquial; low colloquial. 2. Literary bookish styles: a) scientific ; b) official documents; c) publicist (newspaper); d) oratorical; e) poetic (lofty-poetical). The function of colloquial styles is intercourse; of scientific prose and official documents – information; publicist, oratorical and poetic – influence. I.R. Galperin in his definition of a functional style stresses the aim of communication. 5 functional styles and suggests their subdivision into substyles: 1.The belles-lettres style: a) poetry; b) emotive (imaginative) prose or fiction; c) the language of the drama. 2.The publicist style: oratory and speeches; b) the essay; c) articles. 3. The newspaper style: a) brief news items; b) headlines; c) advertisements and announcements; d) the editorial. 4.The scientific prose style: a) exact sciences; b) humanitarian sciences; c) popular science prose. 5.The style of official documents: a) business documents; b) legal documents; c) the language of diplomacy; d) military documents I.R. Galperin includes in his classification only the written varieties of the language. Thus, he recognizes no colloquial style. His position about the belles-lettres style (esp. the epithets emotive or imaginative for prose) is not shared by all - every speech variety in books of fiction. Besides, works of literature are always the reflection of the author’s individual manner. Y.M. Skrebnev uses the term sublanguages According to him, style is a specificity of sublanguage, and any sublanguage has a) absolutely specific linguistic items that belong to one sublanguage b) relatively specific linguistic items c) non-specific linguistic items – common to all sublanguages. He maintains that the number of sublanguages and their styles is infinite . Y.M. Skrebnev rejects the idea of the complete classification of styles and believes that ‘there are as many sublanguages with their styles as you choose’ (including idiolects).The scholar recognizes only the two major varieties of language use – formal and informal (or ‘officialese’ (devoid of any indication of private emotions and of any trace of familiarity) and colloquial (familiar, unceremonious)). V.L. Naer’s classification includes seven styles: -official documents, -scientific papers, -professional-technical, -newspaper, -publicist, -belles-lettres, -religious texts. D. Crystal, a British scholar, recognizes 5 language varieties: Regional varieties that reflect the geographical origin of the language used by the speaker. Social varieties that testify to the speaker's family, education, social status background. Occupational varieties that include the following types: religious English; scientific English;legal English;plain (official) English;political English; news media English which is further subdivided into: newsreporting, journalistics, broadcasting, sportscommentary, advertising. Restricted English includes uses of language when little or no linguistic variation is permitted. Individual variation involves types of speech that arise from the speaker's personal features, i.e. physique, interests, personality, experience, etc.

4. The Style of scientific prose. Terms are w-ds denoting various scientifical & techn. Objects, phenomena & processes. They are found in techn. Texts where they are indespensible means of expressing ideas. They directly refer to the o-t they mean. They are emotionally neutral. They are: 1- monosemantic; 2-m-ng doesn’t depend on the context;3-it remains constant until some new invention changes it(wireless set=radio); 4- no emotional colouring,but it can obtain it when taken out from techn. Sphere. St-c f-s: 1- to create a realistic background for the novel;2- ### a humorous effect if t. are used in lexical surrounding abs-ly foreign to them. T. gradually lose their quality of terms & pass into common literary or neutral vocabulary. T. are mainly used in scient. Prose. This style includes different articles, monographs, conference proceedings & other kinds of academic publications.the main ch-cs are precision,logical cohesion, repeated use of clichés.

5. The newspaper style. As it was seen from the given classifications, some scholars discriminate between the newspaper style and the publicist(ic) style, some do not, uniting all the varieties of the journalistic sphere either under the term newspaper or publicist style, the mass media style, etc. I.V. Arnold uses the term newspaper style for both of them. I.R. Galperin following V.L. Naer discriminates between them due to the function performed: to inform in newspaper writing or to evaluate and convince in publicist one, etc. This fact immensely complicates the task of singling out the absolutely specific language peculiarities typical of all the news media genres. The core element in the print media output is a news report. It is always an account of current news, something of timely importance, something burning and topical for the moment. It is compiled by reporters whose main goal is to inform. The headline is written in a telegraphic manner; it is critical, summarizing, always suggestive and drawing attention to a news story. The function of the headline is complex. it informs. to arouse interest in the potential reader and to catch his eye.Headlines may later be expanded by subheadlines. ‘Eye-catching’ effects of a headline. The rest of the distinctive linguistic features of a news report relate to a special layout known as an inverted pyramid. It means the top down presentation of information that comes in a descending order of significance. The lead gives or summarizes the answers to the following ‘5 ws and h: who? what? when? where? why?’ and the sequential ‘how?’ Manner: -preference is given to standard phrases and clichés; -the vocabulary used is neutral and common literary;- done in the third person with a lot of resorts to passive forms. The language of news items is stylistically neutral. Grammatical parameters:-complex sentences with a developed system of clauses, -verbal constructions (inf, participial, gerundial), -verbal noun constructions, - syntactical complexes (esp. the nominative with the infinitive). These structures are largely used to avoid mentioning the source of information or to shun responsibility for the facts reported. Essays are defined as short literary compositions that deal with the problem from an individual point of view. According to the manner of presentation essays fall into several varieties: -descriptive (making a picture of smb. or smth.), -narrative (telling a real story), -expository (based on argumentation), etc. The short paragraphs found in news reporting are unlikely in a feature article. Argumentation, or logical reasoning, is conveyed by -clear paragraphing; -an ample use of quotations from authoritative sources and citations of the author’s opponents; -connectives establishing a causal link; -parentheses; -generalizations; -relevant statistical data; -illustrations; -vivid examples; - background history facts; -sound analogies and parallels; -accentuating the main points graphical means, etc. Emotions:-the emotionally coloured lexicon; -the whole range of tropes and figures of speech; -historical, literary and biblical allusions, allusions to political and other facts of the day; -such phonological means as alliteration and rhythm; etc. On the pages of a newspaper or a magazine one also finds crossword puzzles, chess problems, comic strips, horoscopes, letters to the editor. Some of them publish poems, stories and novels (one installment per issue), etc.

6. The style of official documents. I.R. Galperin’s classification of substyles of the official documents style includes -diplomatic documents, -business documents, -legal documents, and -military documents. Y.M. Skrebnev adds here personal documents (certificates, diplomas, etc.) The main aim of this type of communication is to reach an agreement and to state the conditions binding two parties (the state and the citizen, the citizen and the citizen, the state and the state) in an undertaking . Generally objective, concrete, unemotional and impersonal, the style of official documents presupposes -adherence to a special compositional design (coded graphical layout, clear-cut subdivision into units of information, logical arrangement of these units, order-of-priority organization of content and information); -prevalence of stylistically neutral (used in direct meaning) and bookish vocabulary; -the use of terminology and officialese vocabulary (cliches, opening and conclusive phrases); -the use of conventional and archaic forms and words; -the use of foreign words (especially Latin and French); -the encoded character of the language reflected in the use of abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols, e.g. M.P. , Ltd (limited), $; -absence of tropes and evaluative or emotionally coloured vocabulary; -a general syntactical mode of combining several pronouncements into one sentence; -an accurate use of punctuation, etc.

7. The Publicist style. (oratory, speeches, essays, articles) the style is a perfect ex. Of historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In Greece it was practiced in oral form which was named P. in accordance with the name of its corresponding genre. PS is famouse for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader & shaping his views in accordance with the argumentation of the author. We find in PS a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things & a strong subjectivity reflecting the authors personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject.

8. Peculiarities of belles-lettres style, its varieties & genres. The belles-lettres style is a generic term for 3 substyles: 1. The language of poetry, or simply verse. 2. Emotive prose, or the language of fiction. 3. The language of the drama. All of them perform the common aesthetico-cognitive function. In spite of the diversity of genres, their common linguistic features are: -Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. -The use of words in contextual and very often in more than one dictionary meaning, or at least greatly influenced by the lexical environment. -A vocabulary which will reflect to a greater or lesser degree the author’s personal evaluation of things or phenomena. -A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax, a kind of lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy. -The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (in plays) or a lesser one (in emotive prose) or a slight degree, if any (in poems). One of the most distinctive properties of the belles-lettres style is its being individual in essence.

9. The colloquial style. The term ‘colloquial speech’ is applied by researchers to careless, unconventional, free-and-easy everyday speech of only those who are well educated and can speak 'correct' literary English perfectly well, whenever it is necessary. It exists in written and spoken varieties: dialogue, monologue, personal letters, diaries, various notes, etc. When written, the function of the colloquial style is to render the specificity of everyday conversation and informal speech. It also penetrates other speech varieties (e.g. the belles lettres works, journalistic articles, etc.) to realistically reproduce the typical features of the colloquial speech. The specific features of the colloquial language are: 1) the spontaneous character of communication; 2) the private character of communication; 3) face-to-faceness or immediacy. These features are reflected in the following peculiarities: Prefabrication - has a great amount of ready-made formulae and clichés or stereotyped units. Creativity E.A. Zemskaya concludes that the colloquial system displays a greater freedom of choice and creation than do literary spheres. Compression The colloquial speech is usually economical and laconic. It is reflected in the following language phenomena: -contracted forms, abbreviations and clipped words -words of broad semantics with the meaning specified by the situation (e.g. do, get, fix, nice, some, one). – extensive use of phrasal verbs (e.g. let smb down, put up with); – simplicity of syntax. Сolloquial sentences are seldom long and practically never elaborately structured. Emphatic intonation as a powerful semantic and stylistic instrument capable to render subtle nuances of thought and feeling. Vocabulary is a noticeable aspect of the colloquial style. It may be subdivided into a) literary, b) familiar, and c) low colloquial layers. Besides the common traits of the colloquial style, its three major substyles – literary colloquial, familiar colloquial (unceremonious colloquial) and low colloquial (popular speech) differ in some of the aspects.

10. Text stylistics. Text Categories. There exist various definitions of the term text. Their analysis can be a task for a separate linguistic research. We are going to touch upon only those textual characteristics which seem to be relevant from the point of view of Stylistics. Within the framework of this approach, we shall understand the text as a completed product of speech, representing a sequence of words, grammatically connected and semantically coherent, and having a certain communicative goal. A written text consists of the title, a number of structural segments united by logical and stylistic connections and guided by a particular pragmatic aim. Text Stylistic aims at investigating the most effective ways and means of producing texts belonging to different styles, substyles and genres. Significant text categories. The types of information mentioned above are closely connected with the notionof text informativity. Informativity can be defined as the text category embracing multi-channel logical and stylistic information which regardless of its heterogeneity aims at developing the author's ideas about the things and processes reflected in the text. Text categories which are most frequently mentioned might fall into two groups. By nature, they are: -content categories, characterizing the text in terms of its semantics and pragmatics including informativity, modality, expressiveness, emotiveness, accentuation, intertextuality - and structural categories which do not deal with the ontological asped of the text and are represented by Cohesion, integrity, completeness. Modality is generally recognized as one of the main categories of Text Linguistics. M. is inherent in any text, because any text is a result of the author's subjective evaluation of the objective reality. M. can be expressed explicitly, e.g. with the help of modal or evaluative w-s, and implicitly. Expressiveness is a purely stylistic category. It is mainly associated with the aesthetic information, contained in the text, and expressiveness largely contributes to its effectiveness. Sometimes the notion of expressiveness is confused with that of emotiveness- being the integral and predominant part of the first, through corresponding stylistic means reveals the emotions of an author. Accentuation aims at giving semantic prominence to a certain piece of factual information or laying special emphasis on the most important (in the author's view) elements of conceptual information. it is realized through a wide range of explicit connectives, parenthetic words and question-answer patterns. Intertextuality is one more important content category closely connected with the notion of subtext and understanding the text itself as the dialogue going on between the author and the reader during the process of their communication. A subtext can be created with the help of citations, allusions, reminiscences, and other sorts of inclusions. Cohesion can be understood in two ways - as formal cohesion or content cohesion. The latter is often referred to as coherence and is associated with a logically consistent development of the main theme. External cohesion is actually realized by means of dif types of formal links:• connectors e.g. and, but, , moreover• transitions e.g. accordingly, find then, again, • pronouns e.g. '.his, , those, his, .her, its',• lexical and synonymic repetitions including the distant word repetition; • developed antithesis;• sustained, or prolonged, metaphor;• parallel constructions through which the reader is led back to the ideas phrased in similar syntactical forms. Integrity and completeness are considered to be those categories which make the text different from a non-text. Completeness of the text can be understood as the result of the integrity of its constituent units. And it is up to the author to decide where "to put a full slop". Doing so, he demonstrates that the message has been conveyed and his/her part of the dialogue with the reader has been completed. Paragraphs, larger passages and chapters, often have their own topics or themes. But this independence is relative since structural components of a separate text are not isolated segments. To be understood properly they require the broader context they belong to.

11. Text stylistics. Types of information. Basic textual segments. There exist various definitions of the term text. Their analysis can be a task for a separate linguistic research. We are going to touch upon only those textual characteristics which seem to be relevant from the point of view of Stylistics. we shall understand the text as a completed product of speech, representing a sequence of words, grammatically connected and semantically coherent, and having a certain communicative goal. A written text consists of the title, a number of structural segments united by logical and stylistic connections and guided by a particular pragmatic aim. Text Stylistic aims at investigating the most effective ways and means of producing texts belonging to different styles, substyles and genres. The main types of textual information The logical elements of the text correlate with reality, the style-forming elements correlate with the addressee of textual information. Taking into account I.R.Galperin's point of view, one can speak about three types: Factual information - data about people, things, and events existing in real or fictitious worlds. It is always explicit. It is also supposed to be logical and objective by character. Conceptual information reflects the author's individual understanding of the relationships among the people and events described. It is derived from the text by the reader himself/herself and in tin's respect can be subjective. Subtextual information is a kind of implicit information stylistic by its nature. This additional inf can appear in the text as a result of interaction and simultaneous realization of different types of lexical and structural meanings. Associatrve and connotative meanings, accompanying direct meanings of language units, constitute the basis of implication. Texts belonging to certain functional styles, especially the belles-letters style, can possess the so-called aesthetic Information which can be created on the basis of all the three types of content information singled out by I.R.Galperin. The objective aesthetic information is part of general semantic information of a particular text, while the subjective aesthetic information is embodied in conntiotaiive and emotive stylistic means of this text which contribute to its implicit content. The basic textual segment.Heated discussions on what is to be recognized as the basic textual segment are still going on. In one view, it should be nothing else but a supra-phrasal unit. The representatives of Communicative Grammar use this term to denote a passage of the text larger than a sentence. It expresses only one definite thought and can be extracted from the context without losing a relative semantic independence of its own.The practical problem is that supra-phrasal units are not clearly perceived in most types of texts. Moreover, they often coincide with paragraphs also competing for the role of basic textual segment. Indeed, written discourse graphically falls into paragraphs. Each paragraph can be treated as a unit of thought. Most paragraphs consist of two parts: • the thesis usually contained in the topic, or key, sentence;• the supporting details revolving around this main idea and expanding on it. The structural patterns of paragraphs vary. The topic sentence, for example, may be located in different parts of the paragraph. The most frequently used pattern is deductive. inductive - the generalizing sentence occurs at the bottom of the paragraph. A deductive-Inductive pattern is formed by two key sentences. It should be specially noted that paragraphing can be of different character in different functional styles. For ins, it is strictly logical in the language of science, highly traditional in legal docs, to a great extent psycho in the lan-ge of the press, and mainly aesthetic in poetry and emotive prose. It is logical to assume that paragraphs can also be classified in terms of basic types of speech, which in their essence corr to what is known as discourse types or rhetorical modes One can single out the paragraph-narration, the paragraph-description, the paragraph-reasoning, and their mixed types]. It is really possible to describe the scheme of a text in terms of discourse types, bearing in mind that a paragraph is the basic textual segment

12. Diplomatic documents. To the style of diplomatic documents belong nearly 60 varieties: treaties, agreements, conventions, declarations.The most striking feature of the composition of such documents that consists of the preamble or preliminary recitals, setting out the names of parties (Heads of State, States or Governments), the purpose for which the document was concluded, the ‘resolve’ of the parties to enter into ; the substantive clauses, sometimes known as the ‘dispositive provisions’ or the body; the formal (or final) clauses dealing with technical or formal points or matters relative to the application or entry into force of the document. Usually such clauses relate separately to the following: the date of the documents, the mode of acceptance, opening of the documents for signature, entry into force, duration, etc; formal acknowledgment of signature; signature by the plenipotentiaries. Hardly any deviation is possible here. Among other traits can be named: -The use of special terms. Diplomatic terminology includes terms proper (e.g. to accredit, dispatch, order of precedence, negotiator, ambassador), and words used in the sphere of international relations in some special meaning (e.g. instrument = document, article = part of a treaty, clause = part of a document, party = either side in a contract, provision = statement). - The use of non-assimilated borrowings, mainly from Latin and French (e.g. status quo, persona non grata, etc). - Frequent numbering of units. - A lot of obsolete and archaic words (e.g. hereto, henceforth, thereon, whereof, whereupon) that clearly show that the style of diplomatic documents is very conservative. -In syntax it is the predominance of simple, extended sentences and complex sentences, the preference for the separation of the subject and the predicate, the abundance of homogeneous members. The reason for that lies, perhaps, in the necessity of the transparence of meaning, elimination of ambiguity, and avoidance of the wrong interpretation of the document, which may cause undesirable consequences.

13. The language of poetry Among the lexical peculiarities of verse the first to be mentioned is fresh, unexpected imagery which assumes in poetry a very compressed form. Images from a linguistic point of view are mostly built on metaphor, metonymy and simile. In poetry the emotional element is used to its full measure and is embodied in a great number of emotionally-coloured words. But the first differentiating property of poetry, or verse, is its orderly form, which is mainly based on the rhythm and rhyme. Various compositional forms of rhyme and rhythm are generally studied under the terms versification or prosody. Both rhythm and rhyme are objective qualities of language and exist outside verse. The most observable and widely recognized compositional patterns of rhythm making up classical verse are based on: -alteration of stressed an unstressed syllables, -equilinearity, or an equal number of syllables in the lines, -a natural pause at the end of the line, the line being a more or less complete semantic unit, -identity of stanza pattern, -established patterns of rhyming. In general, rhythm is an alternation or an interchange of strong and weak segments (‘beats’ and ‘off-beats’ or stressed and unstressed elements (syllables)). The most recognizable English metrical patterns are two disyllabic and three trisyllabic metres: The second feature (after rhythm) distinguishing verse from prose is rhyme which is the identity of sounds between syllables or paired groups of syllables, usually at the end of verse lines. Rhymeless verse is called blank verse (белый стих in Russian). The largest unit in verse is the stanza (also called a strophe) (строфа). It is composed of a number of lines having a definite measure and rhyming system which is repeated throughout the poem. There are many widely recognized stanza patterns in English poetry: the heroic (эпический) couplet, the Spencerian stanza, the ottava rima, the ballad stanza, the sonnet.

14. Business documents This term implies commercial correspondence. Business documents and letters are characterized by a high level of standardization. They are in fact a combination of ready-made forms and stereotyped phrases Formal usage is observed in everything, including the proper variety of direct address, as well as what is called the ‘complimentary clause’. Business letters are mostly very short. I.R. Galperin remarks that they hardly ever exceed 8 or 10 lines. The rules of composition are very strict. -The heading of the letter gives the address of the writer and the date (in the upper right-hand corner); next (lower, in the left-hand corner) the name of the addressee and his (her) address. -Then follow the polite form of direct address. -The text proper is followed by the complimentary clause and, finally, the signature of the sender. The usual way of address is Dear Sir(s), Dear Madam, Gentlemen – when addressing more than one individual, Dear Mr. Smith (Mrs. Brown) if the person addressed to is known. A personal name is practically never used in the direct address of a business letter. Yours faithfully, Yours truly, We remain your obedient servants, Respectfully (never used by a person of equal position) are the usual ending for all business letters. Yours sincerely is the usual ending for letters to acquaintances. It is known that, historically, openings and closing formulas were functional necessities: in a letter the writer was morally obliged to emphasize his submissiveness and humbleness, his inferiority to the person addressed. The body of the business document (letter) should be concise and to the point, without unnecessary information or explanation, written in short, direct sentences. There are many standard formulas used: -to confirm the receiving of a letter (document): We have received your letter of …, We thank you for your letter dated …, In reply to your letter of …, We acknowledge the receipt of …, We duly received your letter …; -to express request: Please, inform us …, We shall (should) be oblige if you …, We shall (should) appreciate it if you …, We (would) ask you to …; -to refer to a letter: With reference to your letter of …, Referring to …, We refer to …; - to apologise: We regret that …, Unfortunately, we …, We beg to …, We offer our sincere apologies for …; -to thank for: We acknowledge with thanks …, We thank you …, We appreciate … etc. At the same time they simplify and quicken business correspondence.

15. Newspaper headlines. Headlines are usually rather short phrases that may later be expanded by subheadlines. Their brevity is secured by the use of -nominative and elliptical sentences, -infinitive complexes, and -attributive noun groups (instead of prepositional of-phrases). Other powerful means of achieving compactness are connected with the omission of articles, link verbs, auxiliaries and pronouns. ‘Eye-catching’ effects of a headline are produced by -emotionally coloured words and phrases, -word-plays, -occasional coinages, -decomposed set expressions with an ironical sounding, -rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, -questions in the form of statements, -direct speech, -graphic contrasts – changes in types (e.g. printing in larger and heavier fonts, italics), etc.

16. Drama The language of plays is entirely dialogue or polylogue. The author’s speech is almost entirely excluded except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions. But the language of the characters is always purposeful, or stylized, i.e. it resembles colloquial language but in no way it is its the exact reproduction, it strives to retain the modus of literary English, unless the playwright has a particular aim which requires the use of non-literary forms and expressions. As words are to be spoken out in front of a large mass of people with differing cultural background, the playwright chooses the words easily perceived and understood by everyone present. The stylization of colloquial language in drama is also revealed in the redundancy of information. The character’s utterances are generally much longer than in ordinary conversation. While the real spoken language tends to curtail utterances, sometimes simplifying the syntax to fragments of sentences. Besides, in lively conversation, even a prolonged utterance is interspersed with the interlocutor’s ‘signals of attention’ (e.g. yes, yeah, oh). In plays these ‘signals of attention’ are irrelevant and therefore are done away with. Further, the speech of the characters – unlike in real life – is never interrupted spontaneously (e.g. by any exclamatory words on the part of the person to whom the speech is addressed). Dialogue in plays gradually flows into a monologue (a ‘false dialogue’, or ‘monological dialogue’) with the remarks being a kind of linking sentence between the two parts of the monologue. Therefore, sometimes the audience listens to a series of monologues still within the framework of a dialogue. In ordinary conversation we never use a succession of questions so much typical of drama. The nature of lively dialogue allows digressions from the starting point. In plays the sequence of sentences reflecting the sequence of thought, being directed by the purport of the writer, will not allow any digressions from the course taken, unless this was the intention of the playwright.

17. Stylistic function, information, norm. Stylistic information, or stylistic colouring of a lingual unit, is the knowledge where, in what particular type of communication, the unit is current. The majority of the words are stylistically neutral. Stylistically coloured words (e.g. bookish, solemn, poetic, official, colloquial, rustic, dialectal, vulgar, etc) Stylistically neutral words taken separately only denote without connoting. Stylistically coloured words preserve their ‘label’ or ‘trade-mark’ even in isolation. Our verbal experience helps us to identify the appurtenance of words to a certain sphere. Besides occasionally a certain context, a specific distribution may also add some unexpected colouring to a generally neutral word. Such stylistic connotation is called occasional. Stylistic colouring of linguistic units is also the result of their distributional capacities. The term distribution implies the possibilities of combining the given unit with its immediate environment. Thus it brings to the forefront the notion of a stylistic norm that indicates in what collocations and speech variety certain lingual units are proper or improper. In the following examples we shall observe the opposition of three sublanguages (styles): -The old man is dead (normal literary, practically neutral). (Cf. Старик умер.) -The gentleman well advanced in years attained the termination of his terrestrial existence (high-flown, exquisite, pompous). (Cf. Старец скончался.) -The ole (low colloquial for old) bean he kicked the bucket (low colloquial, derogatory). (Cf. Старый хрыч подох (сыграл в ящик).) Besides, stylistics does not study or describe separate linguistic units as such. It studies their stylistic function, i.e. it is interested in the expressive potential or expressive properties of linguistic units and their interaction in conveying ideas and emotions in a certain context. There should be mentioned the following integral peculiarities of a stylistic function: - its ‘chameleon’ quality, - its implicit character, - its accumulative character, and - its irradiating character. The ‘chameleon’ quality of the stylistic function means that a certain device does not necessarily perform the same function, it may vary from context to context. E.g. a hyperbole may be used for creating a humorous or dramatic atmosphere. Its implicit character is secured by the connotative meanings of words. Accumulation means that a certain mood or feeling is usually rendered by a group of various means. This phenomenon is also termed convergence of devices. Behind irradiation stands the fact that few or even one lingual unit with an outstanding stylistic function may attach a peculiar sounding to the whole speech unit.

18. The oratorical style According to I.R. Galperin, oratory and speeches make an oral subdivision of the publicist style. Persuasion, or the brain washing function, is the most obvious purpose of oratory. For this the most powerful instrument of persuasion, the human voice, is brought into play. Not infrequently the speaker uses gestures. Its major traits are: -direct address to the audience (special obligatory forms open up and end an oration, e.g. My Lords; Mr. President; Mr. Chairman; Your Worship; Ladies and Gentlemen, etc.; at the end of his speech the speaker usually thanks the audience for their attention); -the use of the 1st person pronouns I, we; -the use of the 2nd and 3rd person pronouns you and they in the generalizing function; -contractions; -elevated and bookish words; -colloquial words (to make the speech less formal); -ready-made phrases or clichés; -the use of repetitions (to keep in focus the object of thought); -the change of intonation (it breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern, revives the attention of the listeners, conveys the shades of meaning, overtones and emotions), -frequent use of rhetorical questions and interrogatives (which promote a closer contact with the audience ), - frequent use of such stylistic devices as metaphor, allusion, irony, climax, alliteration, etc. The choice of the mentioned means depends on the speaker’s intent – to keep the public in suspense or to rouse it. Modern oratory tends to lower its key more and more, confining itself to a quiet business-like exposition of ideas. Some oratories are real masterpieces of eloquent emptiness and verbosity.