Unit

The legal system

In England there are three main types of law: statute law, common law and European Union law.

Statute law

In theory the Legislature (Parliament) makes laws which are administered by the Executive (Her Majesty’s Government) and when there are disputes they are decided by the Judiciary (the judges and the courts).

Most new laws are initiated by the Government, although a few come from individual members of Parliament. A Bill is drafted and placed before Parliament. It receives three ‘readings’ in the House of Commons, during which it is examined in detail and amended, before passing on to the House of Lords which may reject it all or in part. If it happens the Bill returns to the Commons, which may accept the Lord’s decision, or may insist that they reconsider. The Lords cannot prevent the Commons from passing a Bill, but they can delay the process. Once a Bill has passed through all its stages in Parliament it goes to the Queen for the Royal Assent and becomes an Act of Parliament and the law of the land.

Common law

Common law originated in England. It is a system of laws that have been developed from customs and from decisions made by judges, not created by Parliament. English law relies on case law, a collection of previous decisions, called precedents. English courts look at precedents and make a similar decision.

European Union Law

In 1972 the United Kingdom entered the European Community (now the European Union).

There are four E.U. institution: the Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of Ministers, the European Court of Justice.

European Union law is superior to the law of individual member states. In other words, if there is a conflict between the law of a state and that of the E.U., then the E.U. has to be obeyed.

Unit

The court structure (part 1)

A court is a tribunal established to administer justice under the law. It may decide civil disputes or criminal cases. A court may award damages or administer punishment for crimes.

In England, the basic division between criminal and civil law is reflected in the court system.

The English Court System

House of Lords

Сourt of Appeal

Civil Division

Crown Court

High Court

County Court

European Court of Justice

Court of Appeal

Criminal Division

Magistrates’ Court

The Criminal Courts

Criminal actions are nearly always started by the state. The party bringing a criminal action is called the prosecution, the other party is known as the defendant.

Criminal cases can be heard in two types of court:

• Magistrates’ Courts

These are local courts where cases are heard by magistrates, or Justices of the Peace. They are lay people (i.e. they do not have any legal qualifications) who give their time voluntary to decide certain types of cases. The prosecution, represented by a solicitor or a barrister, outlines the case and then calls witnesses to prove it. Witnesses can be cross-examined by the defence. The defence then presents its case in a similar way, after which the magistrates confer and give their verdict.

• Crown Courts

In a Crown Court cases are heard by a judge and a jury of twelve adults whose names are taken from the electoral register. As in a Magistrates’ Court the prosecution case is followed by the defence case. In each witnesses may be called, examined and cross-examined. After the two sides have been presented, each advocate has a chance to speak to the jury. The judge then sums up the facts of the case and explains the relevant law to the jurors. The jury then retires to consider the verdict. This should be unanimous but that proves impossible, then the judge may allow a majority verdict (at least ten of the twelve must agree).

• Appeals

If the accused is found guilty, then he or she may appeal to the next court up:

Unit

The court structure (part 2)

Civil cases

Civil cases are brought by individuals, companies, and organizations. The individual bringing the action is referred to as the claimant (previously the ‘plaintiff’) and the individual defending it as the defendant.

• Magistrates’ Courts

Certain civil cases are heard in Magistrates’ Courts. These include failure to pay income tax and a variety of family matters including the welfare of children.

• County Courts

A large number of cases start in a County Court, including divorce and bankruptcy matters.

• High Court

More serious cases go to the High Court.

Civil cases are usually heard by a judge without a jury. The judge is responsible for the whole conduct of the case. Cases are conducted under the Civil Procedure Rules, which aim to produce a fair, efficient, and economic administration of justice.

As with criminal cases, there is a system of appeals: from the County Court to the High Court or the Court of Appeal; from the High Court to the Court of Appeal, and then to the House of Lords.

The European Court of Justice

If states break E.U. law they can be referred to the European Court of Justice. The Court makes judgments in disputes between European institutions, between these institutions and member states, and between member states.

Unit

Differences in criminal and civil procedure

Differences in criminal and civil procedure include:

• the parties involved

• the standard of proof

• the outcomes

Criminal actions are nearly always started by the state. Civil actions are usually started by individuals. The party bringing a criminal action is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the claimant. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant.

The standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil one as the loser may be not only fined but also sent to prison (or, in some countries, executed). In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal ‘beyond reasonable doubt’; but the claimant in a civil action is required to prove his case ‘on the balance of probabilities’. Thus in a criminal case a crime cannot be proven if the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and have a reason for this doubt. But in a civil case, the court will weigh all the evidence and decide what is most probable.

A criminal action may result in a conviction and punishment of the defendant. A civil action may result in liability on the part of the defendant and damages are awarded to the claimant.

Unit

Role of Police Force

The police have many functions in the legal process. Though they are mainly concerned with criminal law, they may also be used to enforce judgements made in civil courts. In 1829 Sir Richard Main, one of the founders of Scotland Yard wrote: ’The primary object of an efficient police is the prevention of crime and detention and punishment of offenders if crime is committed’. They gather information, arrest, search and question people suspected of crimes and control the actions of members of the public during public demonstrations and assemblies. In some countries the police have judicial functions; for example they make a decision if a person is guilty of a driving offence and impose a fine without the involvement of a court.

The mere presence of the police is a factor in deterring people from committing offences. In Japan you are rarely more than a ten-minute walk from a small police station. The city of Tokyo has more policemen than the city of New York. Could this be one reason there is less crime in Japan than the United States?

A just legal system needs an independent, honest police force. As the police have wide powers it would not be difficult for corrupt police officers to falsify evidence against a suspect, to mistreat someone they have arrested, or to accept bribes in return for overlooking offences. Legal systems usually have codes of conduct for the police. In Britain the Police Complaints Authority was set up in 1984 to supervise the investigation of allegations of police misconduct. In countries where the public trusts the police force, they are more likely to report crimes and are also more likely to be law-abiding.

Unit

Family law. (Part 1. Marriage)

In England couples can be married by a Registrar, an Anglican priest, or by any other person who has a certificate to do so. The ceremony can take place in a registry office, Anglican church, or other approved place. Since the Marriage Act of 1994 it is possible to be married in a variety of places: golf clubs, castles, football clubs, even the London Zoo. The couple to be married must be unmarried, over eighteen (or over sixteen, with their parents consent), of the opposite sex, and entering into the marriage of their own free will. Also they must not be closely related.

When people are married they acquire new rights and duties. There are similarities and differences between the rights and responsibilities of married couples and cohabitants.

	Married couples	Unmarried couples
Legal status	The status is recognized by the law.	The status is not defined by the law.
Housing	Both partners have the right to live in the marital home.	If one partner is sole tenant or owner of the home, than the other partner has no right to stay in it.
Children	Both partners have parental responsibility – even after divorce. Both parents are responsible for financial support of children.	Mother has sole responsibility unless she makes a formal agreement with the father. Both partners are responsible for financial support of children.
Wills	If either partner dies without making a will the other will inherit part or all of their estate.	If either partner dies without making a will the other will not automatically inherit anything.
Support	Each is obliged to support financially.	Neither is obliged to support the other.
Banking and money	If the couple have a joint account each has full rights to the money in it.	If the couple have a joint account each has full rights to the money in it.

Unit

Family law. (Part 2. Children).

If the child’s parents are married, then both parents have parental responsibility - even after divorce. If the parents are unmarried, then the mother alone has parental responsibility and the father has it if he and the mother sign an agreement, or if a court orders it. The unmarried father does, however, have the legal duty to maintain the child.

Parental responsibility involves such things as:

• registering the child’s birth

• making sure that the child is properly fed, clothed and looked after

• taking care of the child’s health

• ensuring the child’s education

The Local Authority has a responsibility for all children who live within its area. If they suspect that a child is suffering, then they have a legal duty to investigate the case. After investigating they may decide to apply to the court.

When children are allowed to do what

At 10 a child can:

• be convicted of a crime

• open a bank account

At 14 a child can:

• go to a bar with an adult (but not drink alcohol)

• take on a part time job

At 16 a child can:

• buy cigarettes

• marry (with parental consent)

• join the army (with parental consent)

At 17 a child can:

• drive a car

• give blood

At 18 a child can do anything an adult can, except:

• stand as a candidate in local or national elections

• drive a bus

• sell alcohol

Unit

Children and crime.

Children under ten years of age cannot be tried for a crime. After the age of ten children can be charged with a crime and may be found guilty.

Up to the age of seventeen, young persons who are suspected of a crime are treated differently from adults. If they are taken to a police station to be questioned, this must be done in the presence of an appropriate adult. This will often be a parent or someone from the Local Authority Social Services Department.

If a young person admits to committing a crime then (unless it is a serious offence such as rape or arson) the police have some freedom. They may decide not to prosecute the young offender, but give him/her a caution.

If the young person does not admit the offence, then the police must decide whether to prosecute. If they do, then the case is usually heard in a Youth Court. Sentences range from a custodial sentence in a young offenders’ institution to a supervision order.

Unit

Divorce.

When a marriage breaks down, it may lead to divorce. Divorce is possible for a couple who have been married for at least a year and whose marriage has irretrievably broken down. There are five proofs that this has happened:

1. One of the partners has committed adultery.

2. One of the partners is guilty of ‘unreasonable behaviour’.

3. One of the partners deserts the other for a period of two years or more.

4. The two partners are separated for at least two years and both agree to a divorce.

5. The two partners are separated for five years or more.

A partner seeking a divorce can do so with or without a solicitor. Couples are encouraged to consider the possibility of reconciliation. If this is not possible then the petition for divorce is handled by the Divorce County Court. The case is considered by the district judge.

Before a divorce is issued, a large number of matters must be decided. Maintenance of children come first, including where the child will live, who will look after him/her, financial support, arrangements for visiting. In the case of the division of property, the court takes into account how long the couple have been married, their ages, their ability to earn a living to support themselves, and so on.

After the necessary formalities have been completed, the marriage is dissolved.

Unit

Inheritance.

It saves a lot of time and trouble if a dead person has made a will setting out how they want their estate to be distributed. In English law the maker of a will is called a testator. A will is a legal document, which need not be drawn up by a lawyer. But there are certain regulations how it must be made. A will has to be printed or handwritten, it cannot be recorded on tape or any other way. Two witnesses who are not beneficiaries must sign the document.

The testator appoints one or more people to administer the provisions of the will. They are called executors or personal representatives. They may be members of the family or personal friends, or a bank or solicitor (who will, of course, charge for their services). When the testator dies the executors are responsible for organising the funeral and carrying out the provisions of the will.

Yet many people never make a will – they die intestate. In most countries, there are laws of succession which state who is entitled to the property of an intestate relative and in what order. Under English law, a surviving spouse is at the top of this order, followed by children, parents, brothers and sisters, grandparents and uncles, aunts and cousins. If there are no relatives at all the property passes to the state.

Vocabulary

ability – правоспособность; дееспособность

accept – принимать

accept a Bill – принять законопроект

accept a bribe – получить взятку

account - счет

joint account – общий счет в банке

acquire - приобретать

act – закон; акт

Act of Parliament – акт парламента

action – действие, деяние; иск; судебное дело

bring an action заявить (предъявить, вчинить, возбу-

start an action дить иск; возбудить судебное дело

civil action – гражданский иск; гражданское дело

criminal action – преступное деяние; уголовный иск; уголовное преследование

administer – управлять, применять

administer justice – отправлять правосудие

administer laws – применять, отправлять законы

administer punishment - применять наказание

administration – управление; применение

administration of justice – отправление правосудия

admit – допускать; признавать (факт)

admit (to) committing a crime – признать совершение преступления

admit the offence – признать совершение преступления

adult - совершеннолетний

adultery – адюльтер; прелюбодеяние

advocate – адвокат, защитник || защищать

agreement – согласие; соглашение

sign an agreement – подписать соглашение

aim – цель; намерение

allegation - заявление; утверждение

allow – допускать; разрешать

amend – вносить поправку

amend a Bill – вносить поправку в законопроект

Anglican – англиканский; относящийся к англиканской церкви

appeal – апелляция; апелляционная жалоба || апеллировать; подавать апелляционную жалобу; обжаловать

apply – применять; просить; обращаться

appoint - назначать

appropriate – соответствующий; подходящий; уместный

approve – одобрять; утверждать

arrangement – соглашение, договоренность; устройство

arrest – арест; задержание || арестовывать; задерживать

arson - поджег

assembly – собрание; законодательное собрание

assent - согласие; разрешение, санкция

Royal Assent – королевская санкция

authority – власть; орган власти

award – выносить решение; присуждать

award damages – присуждать возмещение убытков

bankruptcy - банкротство

barrister – барристер (адвокат, имеющий право выступать в высших судах)

behavior - поведение

beneficiary – бенефициарий; лицо, извлекающее выгоду

Bill – билль, законопроект; закон, акт парламента

accept a Bill – принять законопроект

amend a Bill – вносить поправку в законопроект

draft a Bill – составить проект закона

examine a Bill – рассмотреть законопроект

pass a Bill – принять законопроект

reconsider a Bill – пересмотреть законопроект

reject a Bill – отклонить законопроект

blood - кровь

break (down) – сломать(ся); разрушить(ся)

bribe - взятка

accept a bribe – получить взятку

candidate – кандидат (на должность)

carry (out) - выполнять

case – случай; судебное дело; судебный прецедент

bring a case – представить дело в суд; возбудить иск, обвинение

consider a case – рассматривать дело

conduct a case – вести судебный процесс

decide a case – принять решение по делу

defend a case– защищаться (на суде); оспаривать иск

hear a case – слушать дело

start a case – возбудить иск, обвинение

civil case – гражданское дело

criminal case – уголовное дело

case law – прецедентное право

castle – замок; дворец

caution – осторожность; предупреждение

give a caution – делать предупреждение

ceremony - церемония

certificate – удостоверение; свидетельство; сертификат

charge – обвинение || обвинять

charge with – обвинять в ч.-либо

church - церковь

civil - гражданский

civil action – гражданский иск; гражданское дело

civil case - гражданское дело

civil dispute – гражданский спор

claimant - истец

cohabitant - сожитель

commit – совершать действие

commit a crime – совершить преступление

commit adultery – совершить супружескую измену

commit an offence - совершить преступление

common – общий (о праве); простой, обыкновенный

common law – общее право

common sense – здравый смысл

complaint – жалоба; иск

complete – заканчивать; завершать; выполнять

comprehensible – понятный; вразумительный

concerned (with) – обеспокоенный; заинтересованный

conduct – поведение; ведение || вести

conduct a case – вести судебное дело

confer – давать; предоставлять; сравнивать

consent – согласие || давать согласие; соглашаться

consider – рассматривать; обсуждать

consider a case – рассматривать дело

consider the verdict – обсуждать вердикт

consist (of) – состоять (из)

convict (of) – осудить (за); признать виновным

conviction – осуждение; признание виновным

corrupt – бесчестный

council – совет; совещание

Council of Ministers – Совет министров

couple - пара

married couple – супружеская пара

unmarried couple – неженатая пара

court – суд

County Court – суд графства

Crown Court – Суд короны

Divorce County Court – бракоразводный суд графства

High Court – Высокий суд

Magistrates’ Court – суд магистрата; мировой суд

Youth Court – суд по делам несовершеннолетних

Court of Appeal (Criminal Division, Civil Division) - апелляционный суд (уголовное отделение, гражданское отделение)

create – создавать; порождать

create a decision – принимать решение

crime - преступление

commit a crime – совершать преступление

report a crime – заявить о совершении преступления

try for a crime – судить за преступление

criminal – преступник || преступный; уголовный

criminal action - преступное деяние; уголовный иск; уголовное преследование

criminal case- уголовное дело

cross-examine – подвергнуть перекрестному допросу

custodial – связанный с лишением свободы

custodial sentence – приговор (наказание) с лишением свободы

custom - обычай

damages – возмещение убытков

award damages - присуждать возмещение убытков

decision – решение

create a decision – вынести решение

make a decision – вынести решение

defence – оборона, защита; обстоятельство, освобождающее от ответственности

defend – защищать(ся); выступать защитником

defend a case – защищаться (на суде); оспаривать иск

defendant – ответчик; обвиняемый; подсудимый

define – определять; формулировать

delay - задерживать

department – отдел; департамент; министерство

detention - задержание, арест; заключение под стражу

deter (from) – удерживать от совершения чего-л.

develop – развивать; создавать

develop laws – создавать законы

die - умирать

difference – разница, различие

dissolve – растворять; распускать, прекращать деятельность; расторгать

dissolve the marriage – расторгать брак

distribute - распределять

district – район; округ

district judge – окружной судья

divorce – расторжение брака, развод || расторгать брак, разводиться