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would be nipped in the bud, and, according to Dr.

Croll's estimates, the results would be disastrous for the northern hemisphere. The anti-trades, which now are

warmed by the Gulf Stream, would then blow as cold winds across the shores of western Europe, and in all probability a glacial epoch would supervene throughout the northern hemisphere.

The same consequences, so far as Europe is concerned at least, would apparently ensue were the Isthmus

of Panama to settle into the sea, allowing the Caribbean current to pass into the Pacific. But the

geologist tells us that this isthmus rose at a comparatively recent geological period, though it is hinted that

there had been some time previously a temporary land connection between the two continents. Are we to infer, then, that the two Americas in their unions and disunions have juggled with the climate of the other hemisphere? Apparently so, if the estimates made of the influence of the Gulf Stream be tenable. It is a far cry from Panama to Russia. Yet it seems within

the possibilities that the meteorologist may learn from the geologist of Central America something that will enable him to explain to the paleontologist of Europe how it chanced that at one time the mammoth and rhinoceros roamed across northern Siberia, while at another time the reindeer and musk-ox browsed along

the shores of the Mediterranean.

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Possibilities, I said, not probabilities. Yet even the faint glimmer of so alluring a possibility brings home to one with vividness the truth of Humboldt's perspicuous observation that meteorology can be properly comprehended only when studied in connection with the

companion sciences. There are no isolated phenomena in nature.

CYCLONES AND ANTI-CYCLONES

Yet, after all, it is not to be denied that the chief concern of the meteorologist must be with that other medium, the "ocean of air, on the shoals of which we live." For whatever may be accomplished by water currents in the way of conveying heat, it is the wind

currents that effect the final distribution of that heat. As Dr. Croll has urged, the waters of the Gulf Stream

do not warm the shores of Europe by direct contact,

but by warming the anti-trade-winds, which subsequently blow across the continent. And everywhere

the heat accumulated by water becomes effectual in modifying climate, not so much by direct radiation as by diffusion through the medium of the air.

This very obvious importance of aerial currents led to their practical study long before meteorology had

any title to the rank of science, and Dalton's explanation

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of the trade-winds had laid the foundation for a science of wind dynamics before the beginning of the nineteenth century. But no substantial further advance in this direction was effected until about 1827,

when Heinrich W. Dove, of Konigsberg, afterwards to be known as perhaps the foremost meteorologist of his generation, included the winds among the subjects of his elaborate statistical studies in climatology.

Dove classified the winds as permanent, periodical, and variable. His great discovery was that all winds, of whatever character, and not merely the permanent

winds, come under the influence of the earth's rotation in such a way as to be deflected from their course, and hence to take on a gyratory motion--that, in short, all

local winds are minor eddies in the great polar-equatorial whirl, and tend to reproduce in miniature the character

of that vast maelstrom. For the first time, then, temporary or variable winds were seen to lie within the province of law.

A generation later, Professor William Ferrel, the American meteorologist, who had been led to take up the subject by a perusal of Maury's discourse on ocean winds, formulated a general mathematical law, to the effect that any body moving in a right line along the

surface of the earth in any direction tends to have its course deflected, owing to the earth's rotation, to the

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right hand in the northern and to the left hand in the southern hemisphere. This law had indeed been

stated as early as 1835 by the French physicist Poisson, but no one then thought of it as other than a mathematical curiosity; its true significance was only understood

after Professor Ferrel had independently rediscovered it (just as Dalton rediscovered Hadley's forgotten law of the trade-winds) and applied it to the

motion of wind currents.

Then it became clear that here is a key to the phenomena of atmospheric circulation, from the great polar-equatorial maelstrom which manifests itself in

the trade-winds to the most circumscribed riffle which

is announced as a local storm. And the more the phenomena were studied, the more striking seemed the

parallel between the greater maelstrom and these lesser eddies. Just as the entire atmospheric mass of each hemisphere is seen, when viewed as a whole, to be carried in a great whirl about the pole of that hemisphere,

so the local disturbances within this great tide are found always to take the form of whirls about a local storm-centre--which storm-centre, meantime, is carried along in the major current, as one often sees a

little whirlpool in the water swept along with the main current of the stream. Sometimes, indeed, the local eddy, caught as it were in an ancillary current of the great polar stream, is deflected from its normal course and may seem to travel against the stream; but such

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deviations are departures from the rule. In the great majority of cases, for example, in the north temperate zone, a storm-centre (with its attendant local whirl) travels to the northeast, along the main current of the anti-trade-wind, of which it is a part; and though exceptionally its course may be to the southeast instead, it almost never departs so widely from the main channel as to progress to the westward. Thus it is that

storms sweeping over the United States can be announced, as a rule, at the seaboard in advance of their

coming by telegraphic communication from the interior, while similar storms come to Europe off the

ocean unannounced. Hence the more practical availability of the forecasts of weather bureaus in the former country.

But these local whirls, it must be understood, are

local only in a very general sense of the word, inasmuch as a single one may be more than a thousand miles in diameter, and a small one is two or three hundred miles across. But quite without regard to the size of the whirl, the air composing it conducts itself always in one of two ways. It never whirls in concentric circles; it

always either rushes in towards the centre in a descending spiral, in which case it is called a cyclone, or it spreads out from the centre in a widening spiral, in

which case it is called an anti-cyclone. The word cyclone is associated in popular phraseology with a

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terrific storm, but it has no such restriction in technical usage. A gentle zephyr flowing towards a "storm-

centre" is just as much a cyclone to the meteorologist as is the whirl constituting a West-Indian hurricane.

Indeed, it is not properly the wind itself that is called the cyclone in either case, but the entire system of whirls--including the storm-centre itself, where there may be no wind at all.

What, then, is this storm-centre? Merely an area

of low barometric pressure--an area where the air has become lighter than the air of surrounding regions. Under influence of gravitation the air seeks its level just as water does; so the heavy air comes flowing in from all sides towards the low-pressure area, which thus becomes a "storm-centre." But the inrushing currents never come straight to their mark. In accordance with Ferrel's law, they are deflected to the right, and the

result, as will readily be seen, must be a vortex current, which whirls always in one direction--namely, from

left to right, or in the direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch held with its face upward. The

velocity of the cyclonic currents will depend largely upon the difference in barometric pressure between the storm-centre and the confines of the cyclone system. And the velocity of the currents will determine to some extent the degree of deflection, and hence the exact

path of the descending spiral in which the wind approaches the centre. But in every case and in every

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part of the cyclone system it is true, as Buys Ballot's famous rule first pointed out, that a person standing with his back to the wind has the storm-centre at his left.

The primary cause of the low barometric pressure

which marks the storm-centre and establishes the cyclone is expansion of the air through excess of temperature. The heated air, rising into cold upper regions,

has a portion of its vapor condensed into clouds,

and now a new dynamic factor is added, for each particle of vapor, in condensing, gives up its modicum of

latent heat. Each pound of vapor thus liberates, according to Professor Tyndall's estimate, enough heat

to melt five pounds of cast iron; so the amount given

out where large masses of cloud are forming must enormously add to the convection currents of the air, and

hence to the storm-developing power of the forming cyclone. Indeed, one school of meteorologists, of whom Professor Espy was the leader, has held that, without such added increment of energy constantly augmenting the dynamic effects, no storm could long continue in violent action. And it is doubted whether any storm could ever attain, much less continue, the

terrific force of that most dreaded of winds of temperate zones, the tornado--a storm which obeys all the laws

of cyclones, but differs from ordinary cyclones in having a vortex core only a few feet or yards in diameter--

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without the aid of those great masses of condensing vapor which always accompany it in the form of stormclouds.

The anti-cyclone simply reverses the conditions of the cyclone. Its centre is an area of high pressure,

and the air rushes out from it in all directions towards surrounding regions of low pressure. As before, all

parts of the current will be deflected towards the right, and the result, clearly, is a whirl opposite in direction to that of the cyclone. But here there is a tendency

to dissipation rather than to concentration of energy, hence, considered as a storm-generator, the anticyclone is of relative insignificance.

In particular the professional meteorologist who conducts a "weather bureau"--as, for example, the chief of the United States signal-service station in New York--is so preoccupied with the observation of this phenomenon that cyclone-hunting might be said

to be his chief pursuit. It is for this purpose, in the main, that government weather bureaus or signalservice departments have been established all over the world. Their chief work is to follow up cyclones, with the aid of telegraphic reports, mapping their course and recording the attendant meteorological conditions.

Their so-called predictions or forecasts are essentially predications, gaining locally the effect of predictions because the telegraph outstrips the wind.

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At only one place on the globe has it been possible as yet for the meteorologist to make long-time

forecasts meriting the title of predictions. This is in the middle Ganges Valley of northern India. In this country

the climatic conditions are largely dependent upon the periodical winds called monsoons, which blow steadily landward from April to October, and seaward from October to April. The summer monsoons bring

the all-essential rains; if they are delayed or restricted in extent, there will be drought and consequent famine. And such restriction of the monsoon is likely to result when there has been an unusually deep or very late snowfall on the Himalayas, because of the lowering of spring temperature by the melting snow. Thus here

it is possible, by observing the snowfall in the mountains, to predict with some measure of success the average rainfall of the following summer. The drought of

1896, with the consequent famine and plague that devastated India the following winter, was thus predicted

some months in advance.

This is the greatest present triumph of practical meteorology. Nothing like it is yet possible anywhere in

temperate zones. But no one can say what may not

be possible in times to come, when the data now being gathered all over the world shall at last be co-ordinated, classified, and made the basis of broad inductions.

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Meteorology is pre-eminently a science of the future.

VI

MODERN THEORIES OF HEAT AND LIGHT

THE eighteenth-century philosopher made great strides in his studies of the physical properties of matter and the application of these properties in

mechanics, as the steam-engine, the balloon, the optic telegraph, the spinning-jenny, the cotton-gin, the chronometer, the perfected compass, the Leyden jar,

the lightning-rod, and a host of minor inventions testify. In a speculative way he had thought out more or

less tenable conceptions as to the ultimate nature of matter, as witness the theories of Leibnitz and Boscovich and Davy, to which we may recur. But he had

not as yet conceived the notion of a distinction between matter and energy, which is so fundamental to the physics of a later epoch. He did not speak of heat,

light, electricity, as forms of energy or "force"; he conceived them as subtile forms of matter--as highly attenuated

yet tangible fluids, subject to gravitation and chemical attraction; though he had learned to measure none of them but heat with accuracy, and this one he could test only within narrow limits until late in the century, when Josiah Wedgwood, the famous potter,

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