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HANDBOOK

OF

ANTENNAS

IN WIRELESS

COMMUNICATIONS

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SIGNAL PROCESSING SERIES

Edited by Alexander Poularikas

The Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar, and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems

Stergios Stergiopoulos

The Transform and Data Compression Handbook

K.R. Rao and P.C. Yip

Handbook of Multisensor Data Fusion

David Hall and James Llinas

Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications

Lal Chand Godara

Forthcoming Titles

Propagation Data Handbook for Wireless Communications

Robert Crane

The Digital Color Imaging Handbook

Guarav Sharma

Handbook of Neural Network Signal Processing

Yu Hen Hu and Jeng-Neng Hwang

Applications in Time Frequency Signal Processing

Antonia Papandreou-Suppappola

Noise Reduction in Speech Applications

Gillian Davis

Signal Processing in Noise

Vyacheslav Tuzlukov

Electromagnetic Radiation and the Human Body: Effects, Diagnosis and Therapeutic Technologies

Nikolaos Uzunoglu and Konstantina S. Nikita

Digital Signal Processing with Examples in MATLAB®

Samuel Stearns

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

HANDBOOK

OF

ANTENNAS

IN WIRELESS

COMMUNICATIONS

Edited by

LAL CHAND GODARA

CRC Press

Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

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Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress

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© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0124-6

Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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Preface

I authored a two-part article for the Proceeding of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) on the application of antenna arrays to mobile communications in 1997. It provided the current state of antenna array research and described how an array of antennas may be used to help meet the ever-growing demand of increased channel capacity for wireless mobile communications services. The amount and the kind of feedback I received on the subject, particularly from graduate students and practicing engineers, indicated to me that there is a need for a more comprehensive source of this material than a journal article.

One day in late 1998, I received an e-mail from Dr. Alexander D. Poularikas, who coordinates the Electrical Engineering and Signal Processing series for CRC Press, inviting me to be the editor of a handbook covering the fundamental developments of this field so that the engineers in practice or the ones who want to start in this area have a good source to guide them.

I accepted his invitation and prepared a list of topics to be covered by the handbook. Because the handbook was meant to be a major reference source on this subject, I invited the leading experts in the field to contribute material on topics of their special interest.

I am very excited about the final outcome and trust that you share my enthusiasm as I briefly describe what the handbook has to offer.

The handbook has successfully brought together every aspect of antennas in wireless communications with 26 chapters filled with the latest research and development results compiled by leading researchers in a manner that is easy to follow. The material has been developed logically, requiring no prerequisite and thus making it extremely useful not only for researchers and practicing engineers as a reference book but also for newcomers as a great source of learning.

It is a unique book covering all facets of antennas for wireless communications providing detailed treatment of cellular systems, antenna design techniques, practical antennas, phased-array technology, theory and implementation of smart antennas, and interaction of EM radiation with the human body. It contains more than 1200 references for the readers to probe further.

The handbook would be useful for

Practicing electrical engineers, in general, and communication engineers, in particular, as a reference book

Academics in the area of mobile communications, signal processing, antenna theory, and smart antennas

Graduate students and researchers in this area

Antenna designers in general

Those who are fascinated by the field of mobile communications and smart antennas

The chapters in the book have been selected to provide coverage of different topics. However, some overlap between various chapters has been allowed to provide discussion from a different point of view.

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

The handbook has been organized into six parts outlined as follows:

AWireless communication systems and channel characteristics

BAntenna technology and numerical methods

CAntenna developments and practical antennas

DSmart antennas and array theory

EImplementation of smart antenna systems

FElectromagnetic radiation and the human body

Chapters 1 through 4 are devoted to wireless communications systems and channel characterization. Chapter 1, “Cellular Systems,” presents cellular fundamentals by describing the working of mobile communications systems and discussing concepts of multiple access schemes, channel reuse, channel allocation and assignments, and handoff and power control. It then briefly describes various popular standards. Chapter 2, “Satellite-Based Mobile Communications,” discusses satellite orbital fundamentals and the satellite radiopath, and describes various mobile satellite communications systems. Chapter 3, “Propagation Prediction for Urban Systems,” treats the prediction of the average signal strength for a variety of physical parameters and conditions such as range, antenna height, presence of foliage, and terrain; and discusses site specific predictions using ray models. Chapter 4, “Fading Channels,” emphasizes fundamental fading manifestations, types of degradation, and methods for mitigating the degradation. It presents examples to mitigate the effects of frequency-selective fading in time division multiple access (TDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA) systems.

Chapters 5 through 10 provide coverage of antenna technology and numerical methods. Chapter 5 introduces basic antenna parameters and terminology; and discusses commonly used antenna types, impedance matching, feeding arrangements, and available software for antenna analysis and design. Chapter 6 introduces microstrip patch antennas by discussing their general characteristics. It describes various feed techniques and methods to enhance bandwidth of patch antenna and to reduce the size of conductors. Examples of active patch antennas are also included in this chapter. Chapter 7 introduces the finite difference time domain (FDTD) method with emphasis on its applications to printed antenna and antenna arrays. The chapter discusses fundamentals of FDTD, absorbing boundary conditions, and radiation patterns; and presents examples of various microstrip antenna analyses. Chapter 8, “Method of Moments Applied to Antennas,” concentrates on the application of integral equations to antenna problems and their solution using the method of moments (MOM). It presents the basic philosophy of MOM and its application to wire antennas, arbitrary metallic structures, and combined metallic and dielectric structures. Chapter 9 introduces genetic algorithms and shows how these may be applied to find good solutions to wireless antenna problems. Chapter 10, “High-Frequency Techniques,” presents high-frequency applications for antennas by discussing modern geometric optics, geometric theory of diffraction, physical optics, and physical theory of diffraction.

Chapters 11 through 15 constitute Part C of the handbook and are devoted to antenna developments and practical antennas. Chapter 11 presents development in outdoor and indoor base station antennas in Japan by describing various base station antennas for cellular systems, diversity antennas for macrocellular systems, antennas for microand picocellular systems, and personal handy phone system (PHS) base station antennas. Chapter 12, “Handheld Antennas,” describes various antennas used for handheld phones and presents a detailed study of meander line antennas for personal wireless communications. Chapters 13 and 14 provide coverage on antenna development for satellite communications; Chapter 13 concentrates on aeronautical and maritime antennas whereas Chapter 14 focuses on fixed and mobile

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

antennas. Chapter 13 presents antennas and tracking systems for International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT)-A, -B, -C, -F, -M, and -AERO; and antennas for land mobile earth stations and handcarried terminals. Chapter 14 presents space segment antennas, earth-segment antennas, and gateway antennas for satellite communications; microstrip antennas for fixed and mobile satellite communications; and mobile antennas for receiving direct-broadcast satellite service television (DBS TV) and SATPHONE antenna systems. Chapter 15, “Shaped-Beam Antennas,” focuses on shaped dielectric lens antennas and presents design guidelines for these antennas along with the discussion of some practical aspects, focusing on mobile applications.

Part D of this handbook on smart antennas and array theory contains Chapters 16 to 21. Chapter 16 presents basic array theory and pattern synthesis techniques by discussing basic theory of antenna arrays, array weight synthesis techniques, and array geometry consideration for pattern adjustment. Many examples are included in the chapter to emphasize the concepts. Chapter 17, “Electromagnetic Vector Sensors with Beamforming Applications,” describes advantages and developments of vector sensors, solves a beamforming problem using these sensors, and compares the results with that of scalar sensors. Chapter 18, “Optimum and Suboptimum Transmit Beamforming,” discusses channel characterization and presents beamforming strategies for transmit arrays including beamforming algorithms and robust beamforming methods.

Chapter 19, “Spatial Diversity for Wireless Communications,” treats the basic principles of spatial diversity combining and discusses the performance improvement that can be accomplished by a diversity array using various combined techniques. The chapter also presents the results on the effect of branch correlation and mutual coupling. Chapter 20, “Direction-of-Arrival Estimation in Mobile Communication Environments,” presents various methods for estimating direction of arrival (DOA) of point sources and tracking of moving sources. A detailed treatment of estimation for the wireless channel is also included in the chapter. Chapter 21, “Blind Channel Identification and Source Separation in Space Division Multiple Access Systems,” addresses the problem of discriminating radio sources in the context of cellular mobile wireless digital communications systems. The chapter describes several deterministic as well as stochastic maximum likelihood methods to solve the blind sources separation and channel identification problem.

Chapter 22 through Chapter 24 are devoted to implementation of smart antenna systems. Chapter 22, “Smart Antenna System Architecture and Hardware Implementation,” presents an overview of system architecture and implementation and discusses various important design issues. The chapter describes some real-time implemented systems using digital signal processor (DSP) modules. Chapter 23 presents phased-array technology for wireless systems by discussing phased-array antennas for land mobile communications systems, stratospheric communications systems, and satellite communications systems. Chapter 24, “Adaptive Antennas for Global System for Mobile Communications and Time Division Multiple Access (Interim Standard-136) Systems,” starts with an overview of these systems and then outlines some of the most important issues to consider when applying adaptive antenna techniques to existing cellular systems. A discussion of some possible system architectures suitable for implementation is presented and issues related to signal-processing algorithms are considered. The chapter presents a detailed simulation of the system and compares the results with those obtained from field trials.

Chapters 25 and 26 are devoted to the final part on electromagnetic radiation and the human body. Chapter 25 mainly deals with the effect on the human body of the radiation characteristics of handheld antennas whereas Chapter 26 concentrates on health hazards of electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Chapter 25, “Electromagnetic Interactions of Handheld Wireless Communication Antennas with the

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

Human Body,” reviews exposure standards for radio-frequency (RF) fields and different types of handheld wireless devices, and describes numerical techniques and experimental methods used to quantify and characterize the interactions of the radiated field with humans. Examples showing the effect of these interactions on the radiation and input impedance characteristics of antennas in handheld devices are presented. Chapter 26, “Safety Aspects of Radio-Frequency Effects in Humans from Communication Devices,” considers how guidelines for human exposures to RF are derived, known interactions with human tissues and their measurements, and the evidence for the existence of health effects.

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

Contributors

Sören Andersson

Ericsson Radio Systems

Stockholm, Sweden

Hiroyuki Arai

Division of Electric and Computer

Engineering

Yokohama National University

Yokohama, Japan

Victor Barroso

Instituto Superior Tecnico Instituto de Sistemas e Robotica Lisboa, Portugal

Christos Christodoulou

Lal C. Godara

University of New Mexico

School of Electrical Engineering

Albuquerque, New Mexico

University College, University of

 

New South Wales

Henrik Dam

Australian Defence Force Academy

Canberra, Australia

Ericsson LMD

 

Copenhagen, Denmark

Javier Gómez-Tagle

 

Paul W. Davis

Electrical Engineering Department

ITESM

School of Computer Science and

Guadalajara, Mexico

Electrical Engineering

Bo Hagerman

University of Queensland

St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia

Ericsson Radio Systems

 

S-164 80 Stockholm, Sweden

Mats Bengtsson

Antonije R. Djordjevic

Kwok Chiang Ho

Department of Signals, Sensors

and Systems

School of Electrical Engineering

Addest Technovation Pte. Ltd.

University of Belgrade

Royal Institute of Technology

Singapore, Republic of Singapore

Belgrade, Yugoslavia

Stockholm, Sweden

 

 

Chun-Wen Paul Huang

Magnus Berg

 

Atef Z. Elsherbeni

Electrical Engineering Department

Ericsson Radio Systems

Electrical Engineering Department

University of Mississippi

Stockholm, Sweden

University, Mississippi

University of Mississippi

 

 

Jennifer T. Bernhard

University, Mississippi

Magdy F. Iskander

 

Department of Electrical and

Meng Hwa Er

Electrical Engineering Department

Computer Engineering

University of Utah

University of Illinois at Urbana-

Nanyang Technological University

Salt Lake City, Utah

Champaign

School of Electrical and Electronic

Ramakrishna Janaswamy

Urbana, Illinois

Engineering

Henry L. Bertoni

Singapore, Republic of Singapore

Code EC/Js, Naval Postgraduate

 

School

Department of Electrical &

Carlos A. Cardoso

Monterey, California

Computer Engineering

 

Fernandes

Ami Kanazawa

Polytechnic University

Instituto Superior Técnico

Brooklyn, New York

Yokosuka Radio Communications

Instituto de Telecomunicações

 

Research Center

Marek E. Bialkowski

Lisboa, Portugal

Communication Research

 

School of Computer Science &

Ulf Forssén

Laboratory

Electrical Engineering

Ministry of Posts and

University of Queensland

Ericsson Radio Systems

Telecommunications

Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Stockholm, Sweden

Yokosuka, Japan

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

Jonas Karlsson

Ericsson Radio Systems

Stockholm, Sweden

Nemai C. Karmakar

School of Electrical and Electronic

Engineering

Nanyang Technological University

Singapore, Republic of Singapore

Branko M. Kolundzija

School of Electrical Engineering

University of Belgrade

Belgrade, Yugoslavia

Fredric Kronestedt

Ericsson Radio Systems

Stockholm, Sweden

Te-Hong Lee

Department of Electrical

Engineering/ESL

The Ohio State University

Columbus, Ohio

Sara Mazur

Ericsson Radio Systems

Stockholm, Sweden

Eric Michielssen

Center for Computational Electromagnetics

Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign

Urbana, Illinois

Ryu Miura

Yokosuka Radio Communications

Research Center

Communications Research

Laboratory

Ministry of Posts and

Telecommunications

Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan

Karl J. Molnar

Ericsson Inc.

Research Triangle Park, North

Carolina

José M. F. Moura

Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering

Carnegie Mellon University

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Arye Nehorai

Department of EECs (M/C 154)

University of Illinois at Chicago

Chicago, Illinois

Boon Poh Ng

School of Electrical and Electronic

Engineering

Nanyang Technological University

Singapore, Republic of Singapore

H. Ogawa

Communications Research

Laboratory

Ministry of Posts and

Telecommunications

Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan

Shingo Ohmori

Communication Systems Division

Communications Research

Laboratory

Tokyo, Japan

Björn Ottersten

Department of Signals, Sensors and

Systems

Royal Institute of Technology

Stockholm, Sweden

A. W. Preece

Medical Physics University Research

Centre

Bristol Oncology Centre

Bristol, United Kingdom

Sembiam R. Rengarajan

Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering

California State University-

Northridge

Northridge, California

Roberto G. Rojas

Department of Electrical

Engineering/ESL

The Ohio State University

Columbus, Ohio

Michael J. Ryan

School of Electrical Engineering

Australian Defence Force Academy

Canberra, Australia

Tapan K. Sarkar

Department of Electrical and

Computer Engineering

Syracuse University

Syracuse, New York

Bernard Sklar

Communications Engineering

Services

Tarzana, California

Charles E. Smith

Electrical Engineering Department

University of Mississippi

University, Mississippi

Hyok J. Song

HRL Laboratories, LLC

Malibu, California

Thomas Svantesson

Department of Signals and Systems

Chalmers University of Technology

Göteborg, Sweden

B. T. G. Tan

Faculty of Science

National University of Singapore

Singapore, Republic of Singapore

Masato Tanaka

Kashima Space Research Center

Communications Research

Laboratory

Ministry of Posts and

Telecommunications

Kashima, Ibaraki, Japan

Saúl A. Torrico

Comsearch

Reston, Virginia

© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

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