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2.Types of fiction: Realistic fiction

Realistic fiction, although untrue, could actually happen. Some events, the people, and the places may even be real. It can be possible that in the future imagined events could physically happen. For example, Jules Verne's novel From The Earth To The Moon, which at that time was just a product of his rich imagination, was proven possible in 1969, when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the Moon, and the team returned safely to Earth.

Realistic fiction strives to make the reader feel as if they're reading something that is actually happening—something that though not real, is described in a believable way that helps the reader make a picture as if it were an actual event. This can also confuse the reader into making the reader thinking it's non-fiction.

Non-realistic fiction

Non-realistic fiction is that in which the story's events could not happen in real life, which involve an alternate form of history of mankind other than that recorded, or need impossible technology. A good deal of fiction books are like this, e.g. Alice In Wonderland, Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings.

However, even fantastic literature is bidimensional: it is situated between the poles of realism and the marvelous or mythic. Geographical details, character descriptions etc. create a rhetoric of realism, which “invites the reader to ignore the text's artifice, to suspend one's disbelief, exercise poetic faith and thereby indulge in the narrative's imaginative world.” The bidimensionality appears within the story as astonishment or frightening. According to G.W. Young and G. Wolfe, fictional realities outside the text are evoked, and the reader's previous conceptions of reality are exposed as incomplete. Hence, “by fiction is one able to gain even fuller constructs of what constitutes reality”. On the other hand, the infinite fictional possibilities signal the impossibility of fully knowing reality. There is no criterion to measure constructs of reality − in the last resort they are “entirely fictional”.

Semi-fiction: Semi-fiction is fiction implementing a great deal of non-fiction,[2] for example: a fictional depiction "based on a true story", or a fictionalized account, or a reconstructed biography. Often, even when the author claims the story is true, there may be significant additions and subtractions from the true story to make it more suitable for storytelling.

3.Elements of fiction: Even among writing instructors and bestselling authors, there is little consensus regarding the number and composition of the fundamental elements of fiction. For example:

  • "Fiction has three main elements: plotting, character, and place or setting." (Morrell 2006, p. 151)

  • "A charged image evokes all the other elements of your story—theme, character, conflict, setting, style, and so on." (Writer's Digest Handbook of Novel Writing 1992, p. 160)

  • "For writers, the spices you add to make your plot your own include characters, setting, and dialogue." (Bell 2004, p. 16)

  • "Contained within the framework of a story are the major story elements: characters, action, and conflict." (Evanovich 2006, p. 83)

  • " . . . I think point of view is one of the most fundamental elements of the fiction-writing craft . . . ." (Selgin 2007, p. 41)

As stated by Janet Evanovich, "Effective writing requires an understanding of the fundamental elements of storytelling, such as point of view, dialogue, and setting." (Evanovich 2006, p. 39) The debate continues as to the number and composition of the fundamental elements of fiction.

Plot: Plot is what the character(s) did, said, and thought. It is the Action Proper given unity by the Enveloping Action, the Universal Action, the Archetypal Action. As Aristotle said, What gives a story unity is not as the masses believe that it is about one person but that it is about one action. Plot, or storyline, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. It is the rendering and ordering of the events and actions of a story. On a micro level, plot consists of action and reaction, also referred to as stimulus and response. On a macro level, plot has a beginning, a middle, and an ending. Plot is often depicted as an arc with a zig-zag line to represent the rise and fall of action. Plot also has a mid-level structure: scene and summary. A scene is a unit of drama–where the action occurs. Then, after a transition of some sort, comes the summary–an emotional reaction and regrouping, an aftermath. For a delightful tongue-in-cheek comment on plot, see Katherine Anne Porter's "No Plot, My Dear, No Story" in The Occasional Writings and Collected Essays of Katherine Anne Porter, Seymour Lawrence, 1970.

Exposition: Exposition refers to a fiction story's initial setup, where, variably, setting is established, characters are introduced, and conflict is initiated. For example:

It was a dark and stormy night. The young widow glared at the shadowy man dripping on her kitchen floor. "I told you my husband's not home," she said.

He smiled a rictus smile and shut the door behind him. "Tell me something I don't know."

Foreshadowing: Foreshadowing is a technique used by authors to provide clues so the reader can predict what might occur later in the story. An author drops subtle hints about plot developments to come later in the story. It prepares the reader for later action and subsequent images so that the reader or spectator is not jarred and verisimilitude is maintained even in science fiction, fantasy, magical realism, and other genres that might otherwise test credulity. If such preparation is recognized as such by the reader or spectator, it may be ineffective and artificial.

Rising action: The rising action, in the narrative of a work of fiction, follows the exposition and leads up to the climax. The rising action's purpose is usually to build suspense all the way up the climactic finish. The rising action should not be confused with the middle of the story, but is the action right before the climax. The material beyond the climax is known as the falling action.

Climax: In a work of fiction, the Climax often resembles that of the classical comedy, occurring near the end of the text or performance, after the rising action and before the falling action. It is the moment of greatest danger for the protagonist(s) and usually consists of a seemingly inevitable prospect of failure–it surprises you to the point that gets you excited to see what is to come in the end.

A climax often includes three elements. The most important element is that the protagonist experiences a change. The main character discovers something about himself or herself, and another unknown character. The last element is revealing the theme itself.

4.Conflict is a necessary element of fictional literature. As Brooks and Warren said in Understanding Fiction and as many others have noted, no conflict, no story. Often it is difficult for readers to discern conflict in sophisticated fiction but its locus is always focused on the protagonist. In order for the story to engage the reader or spectator, the conflict can usually be discerned as immediate, urgent, and insoluble. Furthermore, the conflict that is one between good and evil depends upon whether the reader or spectator prefers good or evil and is thus a slight story at best. It is defined as the problem in any piece of literature and is often classified according to the nature of the protagonist or antagonist, as follows:

Types of conflict: There are five basic types of conflict. In ancient cultures Person vs. Fate often constitute the conflict of the story; however, so many people today believe they are in charge of their own destiny that few stories of this ilk can be found. In modern times, Person vs. Machine, also known as Person vs. Technology, has become another one.

5.Character: Characterization is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. A character is a participant in the story, and is usually a person, but may be any personal identity, or entity whose existence originates from a fictional work or performance.

Characters may be of several types:

  • Point-of-view character: The character from whose perspective (theme) the audience experiences the story. This is the character that represents the point of view the audience empathizes, or at the very least, sympathies with. Therefore this is the "Main" Character.

  • Protagonist: The driver of the action of the story and therefore responsible for achieving the story's Objective Story Goal (the surface journey). In western storytelling tradition the Protagonist is usually the main character.

  • Antagonist: A person, or a group of people(antagonists) who oppose the main character, or main characters. The Antagonist rarely succeeds the end of the book/series.

  • Static character: A character who does not significantly change during the course of a story.

  • Dynamic character: A character who undergoes character development during the course of a story.

  • Foil: The character that contrasts to the protagonist in a way that illuminates their personality or characteristic.

  • Supporting character: A character that plays a part in the plot, but is not major

  • Minor character: A character in a bit/cameo part.

Setting: Setting, the location and time of a story, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. Sometimes setting is referred to as milieu, to include a context (such as society) beyond the immediate surroundings of the story. In some cases, setting becomes a character itself and can set the tone of a story. (Rozelle 2005, p. 2)

Theme: Theme, a conceptual distillation of the story, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. It is the central idea or insight serving as a unifying element, creating cohesion and is an answer to the question, 'What did you learn from the piece of fiction?' In some cases a story's theme is a prominent element and somewhat unmistakable.(Morrell 2006, p. 263)

Style: Style is not so much what is written, but how it is written and interpreted. Style in fiction refers to language conventions used to construct the story or article. A fiction writer may manipulate diction, sentence structure, phrasing, dialogue, and other aspects of language to create style or mood. The communicative effect created by the author's style is sometimes referred to as the story's voice. Every writer has his or her own unique style, or voice (Provost 1988, p. 8). Style is sometimes listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction.

Control questions:

  1. What is fiction?

  2. What are the types of fiction?

  3. What is Character?

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. GalperinI.R.Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

Lecture 4 Stylistics and other fields of study

Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of intersection with other disciplines

Plan:

  1. Stylistics and other Linguistic Disciplines

  2. Stylistics and Literary Study

  3. Linguistic versus Literary context

  4. Linguistic Theories and the study of style

  5. Where would style go within the Two Presented Theories

Recommendations:

  1. Scrutinize the lecture and pay attention to the terms given in the lecture.

  2. Pay attention to the reference literature.

  3. Speculate on the implications which might arise upon the reading of the lecture.

1.Stylistics is often intersects with other areas of linguistics, namely historical linguistics, dialectology, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and many others. All of them are different branches of language study and should be regarded as different tools from the same set and not as rivals. To illustrate the situation an example can be p0resented here:

The expression “thou lovest’ taken from the language of W. Shakespeare illustrates how different fields of study use different classifications of the same language phenomenon. In our case this expression will be classified by historians as an older form of ‘you love” and by the students of contemporary styles as a feature of a Biblical or archaic style.

Another example also points at different points of view in classification. The expression “you ain’t” can be regarded as a characteristic of a social class and thus qualified as a class marker. It also correlates with a certain range of situations and so it can be a style marker.

  1. a/Stylistics can be seen as a subdepartment of linguistics when dealing with the peculiarities of literary texts.

b/ it can be a subdepartment of literary study when it draws only occasionally on linguistic methods

c/ it can be regarded as an autonomous discipline when it draws freely and eclectically, on methods from both linguistics and literary study.

  1. In his “Linguistic Stylistics” N.E. Enkvist refers to certain theoretical discussions which voiced some dogmatic attitudes about the relationship b/n linguistics and literary study. To illustrate the situation, he uses the following sample sentence from Ibsen’s play “The Doll’s House”:

Nora says: “I leave the keys here”

This sentence can be linguistically chracterised as an everyday middle-class conversation, an expression which seems, against one contextual background, trivial and highly predictable. From the point of view of a literary context we have to see the sentence as an expression of Nora’s determination to break with her past, that is the sentence is seen in the light of another contextual background.

  1. The most influential linguistic theories of the 20th century, introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky, have also influenced the discussion of the study of style. The aim of this subchapter is to review the main characteristics of the two dichotomies and to see what the role of study of style within these theories was.

Linguistic dichotomy of Ferdinand de Saussure

Linguistic dichotomy of Noam Chomsky

To create a stylistic subsection

Under “langue” and parole

The notion of competence should include an apparatus describing stylistic variations

To equate stylistics with parole

To add “stylolinguistic” use

To ignore this theory

Style should be considered within grammar, but not within the basic grammar, where the study of style is considered less fundamental

Control questions:

  1. What is Stylistics?

  2. What is the intersection with different disciplenes?

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. GalperinI.R.Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

Lecture 5 Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of SD and EM with other disciplines

Plan:

  1. The general notion of EM and SD

  2. Expressive Means

  3. Stylistic Devices

Recommendations:

  1. Scrutinize the lecture and pay attention to the terms given in the lecture.

  2. Pay attention to the reference literature.

  3. Speculate on the implications which might arise upon the reading of the lecture.

1.The evidence of dichotomy is the interrelated opposition of expressive means(EMs) and Stylistic Devices (SDs) as speech models that are used to achieve a particular effect in speech.

The Expressive meansof the language are registered in it and can be found at all language level. They are studied respectively in manuals of phonetics, grammar, morphology, and lexicology as sounds and their combination, word meanings and word structures.

A Stylistic Deviceis a conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the language for further intensification of the emotional or the logical emphasis contained in the Expressive Means” (Galperin 1997). Compared to the Expressive Means of the language, stylistic devices represent a greater amount of information as they show the attitude and emotional state of the speaker or of the author toward what he is speaking about.

In linguistics there are different terms to denote particular means by which utterances are fore grounded, i.e. made more conspicuous, more effective and therefore imparting some additional information. They are called expressive means, stylistic means, stylistic markers, stylistic devices, tropes, figures of speech and other names.

Why is it so important to distinguish it from the expressive and neutral means of the language?

The category of expressiveness has long been the subject of heated discussions among linguists. In its etymological sense expressiveness may be understood as a kind of intensification of an utterance or of a part of it depending on the position in the utterance of the means that manifest this category and what these means are.

But somehow lately the notion of expressiveness has been confused with another notion, with emotiveness. Emotiveness, and correspondingly the emotive elements of language are those that reveal the emotions of writer or speaker.

Expressiveness is a broader notion than emotiveness and is by no means to be reduced to the latter. Emotiveness is an integral part of expressiveness and, as a matter of fact, occupies a predominant position in the category of expressiveness.

The expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, which exit in language -as-a-system for the purpose of logical and or emotional intensification of the utterance. These intensifying forms, wrought by social usage and recognized by their semantic function, have been singled out in grammars, courses in phonetics and dictionaries (including phraseological ones) as having special functions in making the utterances emphatic. Some of them are normalized, and good dictionaries label them as “intensifiers”. In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms.

Compare, for example, the following pairs:

(1) He shall do it! = I shall make him do it.

(2) Isn’t she cute! = She is very nice, isn’t she?

Expressiveness may also be achieved by compositional devices in utterances comprising a number of sentences- in syntactical wholes and in paragraphs. This will be shown in the chapter on syntactical stylistic devices.

What then is a stylistic device? It is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model.

They always carry some kind of additional information, either emotive or logical. That is why the method of free variation employed in descriptive linguistics cannot be used in stylistics because any substitution may cause damage to the semantic and aesthetic aspect of the utterance.

Therefore it is necessary to distinguish between a stylistic uses of a language unit, which acquires what we call a stylistic meaning, and a stylistic device, which is the realization of an already well-known abstract scheme designed to achieve a particular artistic effect. Thus many facts of English grammar are said to be used with stylistic meaning, for example, the morphological expressive means mentioned above.

The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices can be worded in terms of the theory of information. Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability than stylistic devices. The latter may appear in an environment which may seem alien and therefore be only slightly or not at all predictable. Expressive means, on the contrary, follow the natural course of thought, intensifying it by means commonly used in language. It follows that SD s carry a greater amount of information and therefore require a certain effort to decode their meaning and purpose.

2.Expressive means of a language are those linguistic forms and properties that have the potential to make the utterance emphatic or expressive. These can be found on all levels- phonetic, graphical, morphological, lexical or syntactical.

EM and SD have a lot in common but they are not completely synonymous. All SDs belong to EM but not all Ems are SDs. Phonetic phenomena such as vocal pitch, pauses, logical stress, and drawling, or staccato pronunciation are all expressive without being SDs.

Morphological forms like diminutive suffixes may have an expressive effect: girlie, piggy, doggy, etc. An unexpected use of the author’s nonce words like: He glasnosted his love affair with this movie star (People) is another example of morphological EM.

Lexical EM may be illustrated by a special group of intensifiers – awfully, terribly, absolutely, etc. or words that retain their logical meaning while being used emphatically: It was a very special evening/event/gift.

There are also special grammatical forms and syntactical patterns attributing expressiveness, such as: I do know her! I’m really angry with that dog of yours! If only I could help you!

3.A Stylistic Device is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalized pattern.

Examples of SD:

  1. My new dress is as pink as this flower

  2. She is a red flower

  3. My love is a red, red rose

Control questions:

  1. What is the general notion of EM and SD?

  2. What is the discrepancy between EM and SD?

Literature:

1. Л.Л. Нелюбин. Лингвостилистика современного английского языка. М., 2007г

2.Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М., 1990 3. Кухаренко В.П. Семинары по стилистике. М., 1985 4. GalperinI.R.Stylistics. М., 1981 5. Кухаренко В.П. Интерпретация текста. М., 1984. 6. Разинкина Н.М, Функциональная стилистика. М., 1989. 7. Телия В.Н. Теория метафоры. М., Наука, 1990.

Lecture 6 Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices. Intentional Mixing of the Stylistic Aspect of Words.

Aim: to improve students’ skills in the knowledge of SD and EM with other disciplines

Plan:

  1. The Classification of SD and EM by I.R.Galperin and Y.M.Screbnev

  2. Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings: metaphor, metonymy, irony

  3. Interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings

  4. Epithet, oxymoron…

Recommendations:

  1. Scrutinize the lecture and pay attention to the terms given in the lecture.

  2. Pay attention to the reference literature.

  3. Speculate on the implications which might arise upon the reading of the lecture.

1.The classification suggested by Galperin is simply organized very detailed. His manual "Stylistics" published in 1971 includes following subdivision of expressive means and stylistic devices based on the level-oriented approach:

1) Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices - onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhyme, rhythm;

2) Lexical  expressive means and stylistic  devices - metaphor, metonymy, polysemy, zeugma and pun, epithet, oxymoron, antonomasia, simile, periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole, clichés, proverb and saying, quotation, allusion;

3) Syntactical expressive means and stylistic  devices - inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetition, enumeration, suspense, climax, antithesis, asyndenton, polysyndeton, gap-sentence, ellipses, aposiopesis, question on the narrative, represented speech, rhetorical  questions, litotes.

Y.M. Skrebnev doesn't pigeonhole expressive means and stylistic  devices into appropriate layers of language like Leech and Galperin. Skrebnev first subdivides stylistics into paradigmatic stylistics (or stylistics of units) and syntagmatic stylistics ( or stylistics of sequences). then he explorers the level of the language and regards all stylistically relevant phenomena according to this level principle in both paradigmatic and syntagmatic stylistics. He also uniquely singles out one more level. In addition to phonetics, , lexicology and syntax he adds semantics.

1) paradigmatic stylistics :

phonetics - italics, capitalisation, repetition of letters, onomatopoeia;

morphology- deprsonification;

lexicology - Positive: poetic, official, professional. Neutral. Negative: colloquial, neologosims, jargon, slang, nonce-word, vulgar words;

syntax - completeness of sentence structure: ellipsis, aposiopesis, one-member nominative sentences, repetition of sentence parts, syntactic tautology, polysydenton. Word order: inversion of sentence members. Communicative types of sentences: quasi-affirmative sentences, quasi-interrogative sentences, quasi-negative sentences, quasi-imperative sentences. Type of syntactic connection: detachment, parenthetic elements, asyndetic subordination and coordination;

semantics - hyperbole, meosis, metonymy, metaphor, allusion, personification, antonomasia, allegory, irony.

2) syntagmatic stylistics:

phonetics -alliteration, assonance, paronomasia, rythm and meter, rhyme;

morphology- it deals with the importance of grammar forms used in a paragraph or text that help in creating a certain stylistic effect.

lexicology - it studies the "word-and content" juxtaposition that presents a number of stylistic problems - especially those connected with the co-occurrence of words of various stylistic colourings;

syntax - parallelism, anaphora, epiphora, framing, anadiplosis, chiasmus;

semantics - simile, clarifying synonyms, climax, anti-climax, zeugma, pun, disguised tautology, oxymoron, antithethis.

As you see classification by Galperin is simpler and more undestandable than by Skrebnev. But Skrebnev's classification is more details, and he shares each meaning by parts of speech. It is good if we review expressive means and stylistic devices as separate unit in the text.

Galperin also shares them by part of speech, but in his classification expressive means and stylistic devices are more linked to each other. And it helps to understand them better without any omission of a meaning of expressive means and stylistic devices. It lets perceive the overall picture of stylistics.

2.Words in context may acquire additional lexical meaning not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. Context is a sentence or several sentences which make the meaning of the word clear.

Ex: The sunset is very beautiful today.

He is in the sunset of his days. - (он на закате лет).

In the first sentence the word sunset has a primary meaning and in the second sentence this noun had developed a new meaning on the basic of the contextual meaning.

What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary (logical) meaning to a greater or lesser extent. When the deviation from the acknowledged meaning is carried to a degree that causes an unexpected turn in the recognized logical meanings, we register a stylistic device.

The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies two objects which have nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects. A third line is when a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense.

The SD based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and SD based on contrary concepts is called irony.

Metaphor is relation of logical and contextual meanings based on the resemblance of two objects, ideas, actions.

Ex: She is a fox.

Metaphors can be expressed by almost all parts of speech and functions in the sentence as any of its members.

Ex: heart of stone (noun)

the night swallowed him up (verb)

the leaves fell sorrowfully (adverb)

Metaphors expressed by one word is called simple. There are metaphors which are expressed by several words, a group of words, they are metaphorical periphrasis.

Ex: Oh, let me true in love but truely and then believe me, my love is as fear as any mother’s child, though not so bright as those gold candles fixed in heaven’s air.

A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features, which to his eye have something in common.

Metaphors, like all stylistic devices, can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those, which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as. Expressive means of language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i.e. speech metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language.

Ex:

1) Mrs. Small’s eyes boiled with excitement.

2) Denis did not dance, but then ragtime came squirting out of the pianola in jets of Bengal light, then things began to dance inside him.

In this example author uses verbal metaphor “to dance” to describe inside conditionof the character. These metaphors compare uncomparable things:

play of waves,

expence of trouble, etc.

In trite metaphors one of the meaning is supressed by the other. Trite metaphors played an important role in the development of the language, the words which acquire new meaning are fixed in dictionary.

Ex: the salt of life, to burn with passion, to be in the same boat, foot of a bed, leg of a chair, head of a nail.

The main stylistic function of metaphor is to create images. Metaphors can express not only one image, but several. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged.

Ex: The tight little days turned. seven times times and clicked on tooth of the week, which in turn engaged the slow, constantly moving wheel of month.