- •1. Kinds of nouns
- •2. Gender
- •3. Plurals
- •4. Uncountable nouns
- •5. Possessive case
- •Adjectives
- •1. Kinds of adjectives
- •2. Participles used as adjectives
- •3. Position of adjectives: attributive and predicative use
- •9. Comparison of adjectives
- •Adverbs
- •1. Kinds of adverbs
- •2. Form and use
- •3. Some words are both adjectives and adverbs:
- •4. Comparative and superlative adverb forms
- •5. Constructions with comparisons.
- •6. Position of adverbs
- •3. Uses of the Present Continuous Tense
- •4. Verbs not normally used in the Continuous Tenses
- •5. See, feel, look, smell and taste used in the continuous
- •6. The Continuous and Non-Continuous Uses of Certain Verbs
- •The simple present tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Spelling Notes
- •3. Uses of the Simple Present Tense
- •4. Other Uses of the Simple Present Tense
- •The past and perfect tenses the simple past tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Spelling Notes
- •3. Uses of the Past Simple Tense
- •4. Used to Indicating Past Habit
- •The past continuous tense
- •1. Form
- •2. Main Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
- •3. Other Uses of the Past Continuous Tense
- •The present perfect tense (simple and continuous)
- •1. Form
- •2. The Present Perfect Used for Past Actions Whose Time is not Definite
- •3. The Present Perfect Used for Actions Occurring in an Incomplete Period
- •4. The Present Perfect (Simple and Continuous) Used for Actions and Situations Continuing up to the Present
- •5. Special Structures in the Present Perfect
- •The past perfect tense (simple, continuous)
- •1. Form
- •3. Past and Past Perfect Tenses in Time Clauses.
- •4. Past Perfect Tense in Main Clause
- •The future
- •1. Future Forms
- •2. The simple present used for the future
- •4. The Present Continuous as a Future Form
- •5. The be going to form
- •6. The Future Simple
- •7. The Future Continuous
- •8. The Future Perfect
- •9. The Future Perfect Continuous
- •The passive voice
- •1. Form
- •2. Various Structures Expressed in the Passive
- •3. Active Tenses and Their Passive Equivalents
- •4. Get in the Passive
- •5. Questions in the passive
- •6. Uses of the Passive: Active or Passive
- •7. The Passive is Used:
- •8. Passive Sentences with or without by:
- •9. Passive with the Verbs Having Two Objects
- •10. Special Passive Patterns
- •11. Verbs Which Cannot be Used in the Passive
- •1. Modal Auxiliary Verbs: General
- •2. Modal Auxiliary Verbs With Perfect Infinitives
- •3. Can, could and be able for ability
- •4. May and Can for Permission
- •5. May and Can for Possibility
- •6. Could as an Alternative to May/Might
- •7. Can in Interrogative and Negative Sentences
- •8. Can Used to Express ‘Theoretical Possibility’
- •9. Set Phrases with Can, May, Might
- •10. Must and Have for Deduction and Assumption
- •11. Must and have to: forms
- •12. Difference between have to and have got to Forms
- •13. Difference between must and have to in the Affirmative
- •14. Need not and must not in the Present and Future
- •15. Must, have to and need in the Interrogative
- •17. Needn’t have done Compared with didn’t have/need to do
- •18. Ought and Should for Obligation
- •The infinitive
- •1. Forms
- •2. Infinitive without to
- •3. The Infinitive Represented by its to
- •4. Split Infinitives
- •5. The Infinitive Used as a Connective Link
- •6. Functions of the infinitive
- •7. The Infinitive as Subject of a Sentence
- •8. The Infinitive as Complement of a Verb
- •9. The Infinitive as Object of a Verb
- •10. The Infinitive as Object of an Adjective
- •11. The Infinitive after Interrogative Conjunction
- •12. The Infinitive as Adverbial Modifier
- •A. TheInfinitive as Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
- •B. The Infinitive asAdverbial Modifier of Result
- •13. The Infinitive as Attribute
- •14. Active and Passive Infinitive with Similar Meaning
- •15. Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •16. Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction
- •19. The Infinitive as Parenthesis
- •The gerund
- •1. Form and Use
- •2. Functions of the Gerund
- •3. Verbs Followed by the Gerund
- •Note that:
- •5. Gerunds after Prepositions
- •6. The Verb mind
- •7. Gerunds with Passive Meaning
- •8. The Gerund: Special Cases
- •Infinitive and gerund constructions
- •1. Verbs and Adjectives Which May Take either Infinitive or Gerund
- •M. Accustomed, afraid, ashamed, certain, interested, sorry, sure, used
- •The participles
- •1. The Present (or Active) Participle
- •2. Present Participle after verbs of sensation
- •I saw him enter the room, unlock a drawer, take out a document, photograph it and put it back.
- •4. Go, come, spend, waste, be busy
- •5. A present participle phrase replacing a main clause
- •6. A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate clause
- •7. The perfect participle (active)
- •8. The past participle (passive) and the perfect participle (passive)
- •9. Participles used as adjectives before and after nouns
- •10. Misrelated participles
- •Reported speech
- •1. Main points
- •2. Statements in reported speech 1. If you want to report a statement, you use a ‘that’-clause after certain verbs. The most useful are:
- •Tense changes
- •Indirect speech is usually introduced by a verb in the past tense. Verbs in the reported clause have to be changed into a corresponding ‘more past’ tense.
- •1. Past Simple and Past Continuous in time clauses do not normally change. The verb in the main clause can either remain unchanged or become the past perfect:
- •5. Time and place expressions in reported speech
- •6. Modals in reported speech
- •7. Reported questions
- •8. Questions beginning Shall I/we…? Such questions can be of different types:
- •9. Reported orders/requests/advice/suggestions, etc.
- •14. Let’s, let him/them in indirect speech 1. Let’s usually expresses a suggestion and is reported by suggest in reported speech:
- •15. Exclamations and yes/no
- •16. Reported speech: mixed types
- •Contents
16. Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction
The infinitive in this construction is always preceded by to and follows a number of verbs. The infinitive is used in its all six forms but note that Simple Infinitive expresses the same and Perfect Infinitive the previous tense as compared with the finite verb:
He is known to work hard.
He was known to work hard.
They are reported to have arrived. They were reported to have arrived.
A. The ‘Nominative-with-the-infinitive’ construction is used:
1. after the following verbs in the passive – assume, announce, believe, claim, consider, estimate, expect, feel, find, hear, know, report, say, see, state, think, understand and others:
He is heard to be hiding in the woods.
This manuscript is estimated to be 1,000 years old. She was seen to have left the house.
2. after suppose. In the passive suppose can be followed by the simple infinitive of any verb but the construction usually conveys the idea of duty and is not therefore the normal equivalent of suppose in the active:
You are supposed to know how to drive
= It is your duty to know/You should know… though He is supposed to be in Paris could mean either ‘He ought to be there’ or ‘People suppose he is there’.
Suppose in the passive can also be followed by the perfect infinitive. This construction may convey an idea of duty but very often does not:
You are supposed to have read the instructions.
= You should have read them. They are supposed to have discovered America
= People suppose that they discovered.
B. The ‘Nominative-with-the-infinitive’ construction is used:
1. after the following verbs in the active – appear, seem, prove, happen, chance
He seems to know English well. Кажется, он хорошо знает… The weather appears to be improving. Погода, по-видимому, улуч- шается.
She seemed to have forgotten her words. Она, казалось, забыла… He proved to be a good engineer. Он оказался хорошим инжи- нером. I happened to be there at that time. Случилось так, что я был там…(Я случайно был там…)
2. if the verbs seem and appear are followed by an adjective or by a noun with an adjective without to be they have the meaning to look (выглядеть, производить впечатление)
She seems tired. Она кажется (выглядит) усталой.
He seems ill. Он кажется (выглядит) больным. He appears a good teacher. Он кажется хорошим учителем.
(производит впечатление хорошего)
3. note the position of not in the sentence: He doesn't seem to know this. Он, кажется, не знает этого. He didn't prove to be a very good teacher. Он оказался не очень хо- рошим… He didn't happen to be there. Случилось так, что его не было там.
4. the verbs seem, appear, prove, happen can be used with modal verbs, most often with the verb may: This story may seem to be rather dull. Этот рассказ может показаться
This picture may prove to be the best. Эта картина может оказаться
They may happen to be at home. Может случиться, что они будут
C. The ‘Nominative-with-the-infinitive’ construction is used:
1. after adjectives likely, unlikely, certain, sure in combination with the link-verb to be. Simple infinitive very often refers the action to the future.
He is likely to know her address. Он, вероятно, знает ее адрес.
The goods are unlikely to be Маловероятно, что (Вряд ли) unloaded today. товары будут разгружены сегодня.
They are certain to come to . Они непременно придут на the party вечеринку.
He is sure to be asked about it. Его непременно спросят об этом.
2. note the position of not in sentences with likely and in sentences with certain and sure:
He is not likely to come today. Он, вероятно, не придет сегодня.
He is certain not to come to work. Он наверняка не придет на работу.
He is sure not to be asked about it. Его наверняка не спросят об этом.
17. For + Object + Infinitive
1. This structure is often used after certain adjectives:
a) Adjectives that express importance or urgency: (un) important, essential, vital, (un)necessary, pointless. The sentence is often introduced by It is.
It is essential for the classrooms to have plenty of light.
It’s pointless for three of us to go: one will be enough.
b. Adjectives that express frequency: common, normal, unusual, rare. The sentence is often introduced by It is.
Do you think it’s normal for a child to get so tired?
c. Adjectives that express personal reactions to the future: anxious, eager, delighted.
I’m anxious for the painting to be ready on time.
2. A for-structure is often used after too and enough.
It’s too heavy for you to lift.
I think it’s late enough for us to put Philip to bed.
3. The for-structure is used after certain nouns: plan, idea, suggestion.
Have you heard about the suggestion for Jack to go abroad?
His idea is for us to travel in two different cars.
4. The for-structure is used to express purpose.
We brought some toys for the children to play with.
(=We brought some toys so that the children could play with them.)
For the diet to work properly, you have to follow it very strictly.
5. This structure is not very common after verbs. It can be only used after arrange, suit, take (time) and the verbs with the preposition for: wait for, look for.
Can you arrange for the gold to be delivered on Monday?
When will it suit you for us to call?
It took twenty minutes for the smoke to clear.
We are waiting for the waiter to serve us.
18. for or of
We can use of after the adjectives describing the people’s behaviour: good, nice, kind, brave, honest, clever, silly, wrong, rude....
It’s kind of you to invite me.
It was clever of you to work out the answer.
Compare good of and good for:
It was good of you It was good for you
to go jogging with me. to go jogging with me.
(= it was a kind action) (=it was a healthy experience for you)