Английский / Английский язык.1 курс

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II. Listen to Leon Peters, a Construction Worker, speaking about his job, and answer the questions below:

I'm self-employed but I work with three other guys as a gang – that's like a team. We get contracts from construction companies, maybe a few weeks, maybe a year. It depends on the size of the building. You have to be prepared to travel wherever the work is but the money is good. There are bonuses too, for finishing ahead of schedule.

What we do is we build the steel frames of all sorts of buildings. I've worked on supermarkets, warehouses, and multistorey buildings, including one that was 30 storeys high. Everything is pre-fabricated. The steel is cut to the right size and drilled before it comes to the site. We have to bolt or weld the pieces together. It sounds easy but try lining up a one-tonne girder swinging from a crane on a winter's day when you're a hundred meters up! We like to work fast, and to do that you need ground people who make sure everything reaches you in the right order, and a crane operator who can deliver on the spot – right where you need it.

On a typical day, I could be working a twelve-hour shift. If you're high up, you don't come down for tea-breaks. Everything you need is up there - canteen, toilets.

Is it dangerous? Well, yes, but there are a lot of safety precautions. We have to wear a safety harness with a lifeline. There are safety cables slung round whichever floor you're working on, and you clip onto one as soon as you start. There's a safety net underneath the floor until the deck is down. For me, the most dangerous time is moving the girders into the right position. You could be crushed.

I'd like to set up my own construction company eventually, and employ others to do this kind of work. (Technology, Unit 9, Listening scripts)

Questions: 1. How big is Leon’s gang? 2 How long is the contract? 3 What kind of buildings has he worked on? 4 How long is a typical shift?

Find reasons why: 1) contracts vary in length: 2) bonuses are paid; 3) you need good ground people; 4) you don’t come down for tea-breaks; 5) moving girders is dangerous.

III. Listen to Phillipe Rugeri, a Mechatronics Engineer, speaking about his job, and answer the questions below:

My special area is electronic assistive technology, or EAT for short. I work for a company which makes equipment to help severely disabled people. I mean people who can't walk, people who have very limited movement - perhaps they can move only their head.

In this kind of work, you need knowledge of mechatronics. That's where mechanics, electronics, and software engineering meet. Take a page-turner, for example. It's a device which turns the pages of a book or magazine. The input can be a pneumatic switch - that's a switch worked by air pressure. You operate it by sucking or blowing down a tube. These signals are interpreted by a microprocessor which controls the mechanism which turns the pages. That mechanism uses electrical and mechanical devices. All three branches of engineering combine to make it work.

It's an exciting job. Each development in technology means new possibilities for disabled people. (Technology, Unit 10, Listening scripts)

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Marisa: Fine. I’d like a large tune and pineapple pizza S P: Any side orders?

Marisa: Yes. Can I have a small tomato salad? S P: Sure. What about drink?

Marisa: A small coffee please.

S P: Right. A large tuna and pineapple pizza, a small tomato salad and a small cup of coffee.

Marisa: How much is that?

S P: That is twelve euros ninety five. Marisa: Can I pay by credit card?

S P: Of course. What is the name on the card?

IV. Read/listen to ordering food in a fast food restaurant and answer the question below:

Waitress: OK, here we are. Two vegetarian pizzas.

Sam: No, that's not for us. Our order is a sandwich with fries and a salad. Waitress: Oh, excuse me, that's the wrong order. Just a moment.

Jenny: Two vegetarian pizzas? I really like them! Can we change our order? Sam: Of course not.

Waitress: OK. I think this is your order. A medium salad for you, sir. Sam: Oh no, the salad's for her.

Waitress: OK. Right. A medium salad and a small glass of mineral water for you, madam; and a cheese sandwich on brown bread with large fries and a large cup of coffee for you, sir.

Sam: Yes. Thanks. How much is that?

Waitress: That's sixteen dollars and seventy cents, please. Sam: Can I pay by credit card?

Waitress: Of course.

Answer the questions: 1. What does Jenny really like? 2. How does Sam ask about the price of the meal? 3. How does Sam pay for the meal?

V. Laurence writes about diet in a magazine. Read the letters and Laurence answer to one of them. Which letter does it answer?

Dear Laurence,

I am always hungry. I eat three good meals a day but then I want crisps and biscuits too. Of course, now I am quite fat. Can you help me? Lois

Dear Laurence,

I know I have an unhealthy diet. I work about 10 hours a day and get home late, so I don’t have time to cook and I eat convenience food. What can I do? James

Dear Laurence,

I try to eat a good diet – I eat pasta and vegetable, and I don’t eat any meat, fish or cheese – but I’m always tired. What is wrong with my diet? Karin

Dear _______

It is horrible when you feel tired all the time. You need some meat, fish or cheese on your diet. They give you energy. Also, why don’t you take some exercise? That gives you energy too. How about a walk every evening after work? I hope that helps. Laurence

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YI. People’s rubbish tells us about their lives. Here Laurence looks at the diet of two families. Do you agree with him about the diets of these families? Speak about your diet.

Hello and welcome to In the rubbish bin, the show where we look at people’s lives by looking at their rubbish. I am Laurence Redburn. Today we look at the diets of two very different families. I have their rubbish bins in the studio, with a typical day’s rubbish, so, let us start with the rubbish bin A. What does thus family eat and drink? We have some cans… cola cans – not very healthy. Mmm, instant coffee. Some boxes … cheese and tomato pizza, burgers. Some biscuits, and crisp packets – all fast food, and not very healthy. Do they eat any vegetables or fruit? I don’t think so. Oh dear, not a healthy diet. A lot of this food is bad for you, so this family is probably not very healthy.

Now let’s look at the rubbish bin B. This is very different – it’s good. The family eats a lot of fruit and vegetables … some potatoes, carrots, … bananas and apples. What do they drink? We have some juice cartons, some milk bottles ands we have a water bottle … two water bottles – very good, all very healthy so far. Tea bags … well OK. They eat some pasta, and fish – that is good. I can’t see any fast food here. I think it’s a very healthy family.

Key vocabulary:

Dishes: burger, fries, pizza salad sandwich

Meat and fish: (minced) beef, chicken, lamb, trout, tuna Dairy: butter, cheese, cream, ice cream, milk

Fruit and vegetable: apple, banana, carrot, pineapple, potato, (water) melon,

onion

Drinks: coffee, cola, fruit/orange juice

Other: biscuits, (white/brown) bread, cereal, crisps, mayonnaise, rice Money: cheque, credit card, note, receipt

Adjectives: delicious, tasteless, tasty, disgusting, mouth-watering

Adjectives for physical ands emotional states: fit, happy/unhappy, healthy/ unhealthy, hungry, thirsty, tired

Cooking and eating: cook for yourself, give (something) up, eat out, diet

SHOPPING

I. Read/listen to the dialogue between a buyer and a shop assistant: Customer: Excuse me. Can you help me?

Shop assistant: Yes, madam.

Customer: I bought this jacket yesterday and it doesn’t fit. Shop assistant: Do you want to try a different size? Customer: No, I’d like a refund.

Shop assistant: Have you got your receipt? Customer: Yes, here it is.

Shop assistant: Ok. So that’s 150 euros. Here you are.

Shop assistant: Can I help you?

Customer: Yes, I bought this DVD player last week and it doesn’t work. Shop assistant: I see. Have you got your receipt?

Customer: Yes, I have. Can I exchange for another one?

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the official languages in Canada, the Republic of South Africa and the Irish Republic. It is also spoken as a second language by many people in India, Pakistan, numerous countries in Africa. Around 375 mln people speak English as their first language and another 375 mln speak it as a second language.

Even more widely English is studied and used as a foreign language – around 750 mln people. In this respect it acquired an international status. It is used for communication across frontiers, listening to broadcasts, reading books and newspapers, in commerce and travel. Half of the world's scientific literature is in English. English is associated with technological and economic development of the great manufacturing countries. It is the language of automation and computer technology, international aviation, shipping and sport. It is the major language of diplomacy.

CAREERS IN TECHNOLOGY

Five people are talking about their work in the engineering field. Here are some questions each of them may be asked. Answer these questions after reading/listening to each story and also the questions given after it. Describe each job briefly to others or discuss it with your partner in the form of a dialogue:

1. What does this particular person like most about his job? 2. What does his work involve? 3. What are bad points about his job if mentions them? 4. Does he say how long he has worked there? 5. What is the biggest challenge of his job? 6. Imagine what advice he would give students entering his profession. 7. Why did he choose this job? 8. Is it a well-paid job?

1. Read/listen to Ian Bronec, a Mechanical Engineer, speaking about his job.

I work for a Polish company which converts diesel engines to run on natural gas. They're used in forklifts and tractors, but mostly in buses. Diesel-engine buses can produce a lot of pollution. The air quality in city centers is often quite poor. Natural gas-fuelled engines are much cleaner than diesel. The work that we do is helping to improve the air quality in our cities.

In the past few years, we've started to build gas-powered generators. They produce up to 100 kilowatts. They run on bio-gas from sewage treatment plants. They produce all the power the plant needs, and more. When there's a power cut, people find it a bit strange that the sewage plant has all its lights on.

I travel quite a lot in my job. I help to install new generators all over the country and to provide support for bus companies who use our engines. We're planning to export to other EU countries so I might have more opportunity to travel outside Poland and maybe use my English.

(Technology, Unit 8, Listening scripts)

Some more questions to be answered: What kind of transport is he concerned with? 2. How does his work improve life in cities? 3. What other product does his company make? 4. What kind of fuel does this product use? Why might he have more opportunities to use English?

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Terry – Obviously, the biggest difference is the people. The average Englishman is … mm cold and not very open. In the States it's very different. We start conversations with people in the street, in the subway; we're a lot more enthusiastic and spontaneous than people here. You know, when I first came, I couldn't understand why I was getting so little reaction from people, but now I see that they thought I was overpowering and that I was trying to be too friendly too soon.

Int. – But, tell me; does the Englishman improve as you get to know him? Terry – Oh yes. Once you have made a friend, it's a friend for life, but it takes a

very long time. I'll tell you something that I think is very important. An Englishman in America is respected. Everyone wants to talk to him. We're inquisitive; we love his accent and his country. An American though in England is thought to be a little inferior because of his behavior and his language. One thing I've learned - it's funny now, but it wasn't at the time I couldn't understand why when I was talking to someone he would move away, you know, move backwards, and I thought 'Do I smell? Am I boring him?' The reason was, you see, Americans stand closer when they're talking. Again, English people like a certain distance.

Int. – That's true. What about your impressions of living here? How does that compare with the States?

Terry – Well, mmm ... I think life's a lot easier in the States. It's easier to make money and it's easier to spend it. Shops are open all the time over there. Here you've got to race to reach the supermarket by 5.30. Generally, though I find life more inefficient here. If you need an electrician, it takes days to get one, he doesn't do the job very well, the system is so old that he can't get the parts to repair it, and he doesn't care. This leads to another very important point. Americans work a lot harder than you do. To the English their private lives are important, their holidays are important, their gardens are important, their animals are important, but an American wouldn't admit that. For us, our work is the most important thing in our lives. You know, holidays seem to be longer here, people make the most ridiculous excuses not to go to work - 'My dog's got a cold', I heard the other day.

Int. – Oh, come on.

Terry – You have tea breaks that get longer and longer. In that respect we're quite like the Japanese. Our jobs come first, but there are all sorts of services to make life easier around our jobs.

Int. – Well. I take it you have a pretty negative opinion of England.

Terry – You would think so from this interview, wouldn't you? No, in fact I really love it here. I go home once a year and really look forward to coming back here. This is my home now.

(Headway Intermediate, 17 b)

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD

It is only in the course of the last hundred years that English has become a world language. In Shakespeare's time it was a "provincial" language of secondary importance with only 6 million native speakers. Nowadays English has become the world's most important language in politics, science, trade and cultural relations. It is the official language of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, of the United States of America, of Australia and New Zealand. English is used as one of

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Shop assistant: Of course. Just a moment. Here it is. (Total English, Elementary, Student’s Book).

TRAVELLING

I. Read/listen to the dialogue between a travel agent and a customer: Agent: Good morning. Distant Dreams Travel.

Billy: Oh, hello. Do you sell airline tickets for New Zealand?

Agent: Yes.

Billy: Right. I'd like four tickets from London Heathrow to New Zealand. Agent: What's your exact destination?

Billy: Auckland.

Agent: And when do you want to go?

Billy: I'd like to go on Friday the fifth of next month. Agent: Return or one-way?

Billy: I'd like return tickets, please. We want to come back one month later. Agent: OK. I'll just check on the computer. OK, do you want economy or busi-

ness class?

Billy: Oh, business class is expensive. I prefer economy. How much is that? Agent: Let me see. Four return tickets in economy, and your departure date is

the fifth. OK. We've got Air New Zealand and Qantas for those dates. On Air New Zealand it's six thousand New Zealand dollars, about two thousand pounds. Qantas is more expensive – about two thousand, three hundred pounds, but it's a shorter flight. Which do you prefer?

Billy: The cheaper one, Air New Zealand, I think. What time does the flight leave London?

Agent: At ten thirty in the morning. Billy: Is it a direct flight?

Agent: No, there's a short stop in Bangkok. Billy: Fine. I'd like four tickets then, please. (Total English, Elementary, Student’s Book)

II. Read the text giving the things important for air travelers:

If you are flying with Go Faster Airlines, read this notice before you go to the airport.

Documents – Go Faster Airlines uses an electronic check-in system. You don’t have to bring your tickets to the check-in desk, but you have to bring proof of your identity (including your photo): for example a passport, driving license or identity card. If you are flying to another country, you have to show your passport. Be at check-in two hours before your departure time.

Luggage – With Go Faster Airlines you can check in a maximum of 20 kg of luggage to put in the hold (checked-in luggage). You can take a maximum 5 kg of hand luggage (carry-on luggage) You can’t put sharp objects in your hand luggage. You have to put then in your checked luggage. Your suitcase has to have a label with your name and address. The label does not have to have your flight number because that is on the electronic label.

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Electronic devices – You have to switch off all electronic devices before boarding the plane. You can’t use your mobile phone inside the plane. Also, don’t take drinks and food on the plane and wear your seat best during the flight.

Match 1 - 5 to their meanings a–e:

1. proof	a) The bags you give in at the check-in desk
2. the hold	b) Entering the plane
3. hand luggage	c)This is the place on the plane where they put bags.
4. checked luggage	d) This shows that something is true
5. boarding	e) Small bags you take on the plane.

Say what is necessary/unnecessary and what is possible/not possible:

necessary

unnecessary Possible

not possible

Bring tickets to the check-in desk

Bring proof of your identity

Show your passport when you fly to another country

Check in 20kg of luggage

Take more than 5 kg of hand luggage

Put sharp objects in hand luggage

Put a label on your bag with your name & address

Put your flight number on your suitcase label

Switch off electronic units before you board the plane

Use a mobile phone inside the plane

III. Getting information while travelling in Great Britain:

Welcome to the free Tourist Information Line for visitors to Great Britain. For information on visas and immigration, please press one. For information on driving in Britain, please press two. For information on hotels, please press three. For information on public transport in Britain, please press four. To return to this menu at any time press the star key. You have chosen option two: driving in Britain.

If you have a valid driving license from your own country, you can drive in Britain without a British license for six months. After six months, you have to get a British driving license. To get a British license you have to take a driving test. You can find information about the British driving test on our website. To rent a car in Britain you have to have a valid driving license from your country and a credit card. Drivers under the age of 18 can't rent cars in Britain. When you are driving in Britain, you don't have to keep your documents with you. The British drive on the left side of the road and, unlike the United States, you can't turn right at a red traffic light. For more information on British driving regulations, please look at our website. That is the end of the driving section. To return to the main menu press the start key.

IV. Steve speaks about things that may be useful for those travelling in the

USA:

We don't have a lot of rules in the United States really. I mean we don't have to do military service and we don't have to have identity cards. You can drive when

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Bob – And the holidays, the public holidays are much shorter than here, and in the States only the banks are shut. Everything else stays open, so it makes life much easier. You could do what you liked when you liked.

Sheila – And it was easier with the children, because I could wait till you got back and we did the shopping together, didn't we?

Bob – Yes.

Int. – I see, um ... do you think New York is as cosmopolitan as London? Sheila – Oh yes, but it's not as mixed. Nationalities stay in their own areas; like

there's the Ukrainian section, the Russian section . . .

Bob – ... the German section. We were in German Town, York Town, which is called German Town. And there was a row of German shops, all German-speaking. But you didn't find that anywhere else. And the Ukrainians were down on 14th and 2nd, and the Spanish kept to Spanish Harlem.

Sheila – I think the major difference was the height of the place. Everything was up. We lived on the twenty-ninth floor.

Bob – And I worked on the sixty-third floor.

Sheila – But I like heights. And of course everything is faster. And the people are much ruder.

Bob – Which means of course that we're much ruder ourselves now we're back in Britain.

Int. – Oh, in what ways?

Bob – Well, pushing in the street. Sheila – Oh. I don't!

Bob – Fights about getting on the bus. No good old British queues. Int. – But, are all Americans like that?

Sheila – Oh yes. Well, all New Yorkers anyway. Not so much in other places. When we went to California it was very different. There weren't the same pressures at all, were there?

Bob – I think we were aware that New York is quite a dangerous place. We never had any problems at all, but when there was a crime, it was horrendous.

Sheila – Oh yes, the subways are unusable. They're dirty, uncomfortable. Int. – Did you make many friends?

Sheila – Well, that's what's interesting really. We made more friends there than we have after two years of living here. I think Americans are more open, they, you know, they speak their minds, so if they don't like something, they actually tell you directly. Not like the British, who might think one thing and say another. So I suppose you could say that the English are ruder than the Americans.

Bob – Or that they're less honest. (Headway Intermediate, 17 a)

ENGLAND AS SEEN BY AMERICANS:

Terry Tomsha talks about her experience of living and working in England, where she has been for the past eleven years.

Interviewer – So, Terry. You've been in this country for quite a long time now. What differences do you notice between the two countries?

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tries now dominate the US economy. It is sometimes said that the United States has moved into «a post-industrial era».

Higher Education in the United States. Higher education is given in colleges and universities. There are over 2, 100 various higher educational institutions, including colleges, technological institutes and universities. The oldest American universities are Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia. They were founded in the 17th and 18th centuries. Later on the network of higher educational institutions spread from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific.

In American parlance, a college is a four-year institution of higher learning that offers courses in related subjects. A business college, for example, offers courses in accounting, investment, marketing. Many colleges are independent and award Bachelor's degrees to those completing a program of instruction that typically takes four years. But colleges can also be components of universities. A large university typically comprises several colleges, graduate programs in various fields, one or more professional schools, and one or more research facilities.

A college student takes courses in his or her «major» field, the area of study in which he or she chooses to specialize, along with «electives», courses that are not required but chosen by the student. After four years of studies the students get a traditional Bachelor's degree. Then the students may go on to a graduate school and with a year or two of further study gets a Master's degree. After another year or two of study and research, they may get a still higher degree as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). The student's progress is evaluated by means of tests, term works and final examinations in each course. Colleges and universities, both private and public, charge tuition.

AMERICA AS SEEN BY BRITONS

Bob and Sheila spent two years living in New York because of Bob's work as a banker. Neither of them had lived in a big city before. They now live back in England in a small village outside London.

Interviewer – How long did you live in the States?

Bob – We were there for two and half years, in New York. Int. – And did you enjoy it?

Sheila – Oh, tremendously. We had a wonderful time.

Bob – Yes, what I liked best was that I could work and still lead a normal life. I mean, the shops are open till 10 o'clock.

Int. – All shops?

Sheila – Yes, everything, food shops, chemists ... .

Bob – There's a huge department store called Gimbles on 86th Street that was open till 9.00.

Sheila – And some supermarkets are open twenty-four hours a day. Most shops don't open as early as in England, well they don't open until about uhm ... 10 or 11 in the morning.

Bob – Yes, that's right.

Sheila – Because they all work much later. And everything's open on Sundays.

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you're 16 and you can even buy a gun when you're 21! But some things aren't so easy. You have to be 21 to go into a bar or a nightclub, and smoking is difficult - you can't smoke in offices, shops or restaurants. And of course we have to pay when we see a doctor or go to hospital.

V. Useful vocabulary: go by car/bus/train/plane/taxi/bicycle get on/off a bus/train/plane/taxi/bicycle get into/out of car/taxi

catch, take or miss a bus/train/plane/taxi

beach or sightseeing holidays, camping or skiing holidays rent a car, use local transport, go abroad, stay in hotels go self-catering, sunbathe on the beach, pack/unpack

SPORTS AND GAMES

Sport has played an important part in our lives for many centuries. For some people it is as necessary and natural as eating and sleeping. For others it is just entertainment on TV. Some people do amateur sports and some are professionals.

Sport at an amateur level should be for enjoyment and fitness. Fitness comes not only from exercises done but from the way you live all the time. Good eating and sleeping habits, also plenty of fresh air are important parts of the way to keep fit.

Professional sport is an exciting sphere of hard work and competition. But professional sport seems less to do with enjoyment and more to do with making money. Sport is not just for participants, it is for spectators too. Millions of people all over the world spend hours watching sports events on TV, or at stadium. People enjoy being “fans” or supporters of one team or one particular sport personality.

The government policy in Belarus is to make sports accessible to all. The country has excellent sporting facilities in schools and higher education facilities. Belarusian sports facilities for the general public include: stadiums (243), swimming pools (250), gymnasiums (about 5,000), athletics centers (46), ice rinks (20), sports grounds. Many sports are played in Belarus. Amongst the most popular are: track and field athletics, football, gymnastics, skiing, hockey, tennis, fencing, wrestling, volleyball, handball, swimming, chess and checkers. The Raubichi Centre in Belarus is considered to be one of the best biathlon centers in the world. It has a ski track, freestyle slopes, ski jumps, shooting grounds with mechanical targets, indoor sports centre with gymnasiums, artificial pitches and swimming pools.

Belarus has already produced 280 world and European champions in different sporting disciplines. In the Beijing 2008 games, Belarus won 19 medals, including 4 gold and 5 silver. The team was most successful in athletics, canoeing and weightlifting, and finished 16th in the medals table overall. Belarus also fields a strong Paralympics team. At the 2008 Beijing Paralympics Belarus won a total of 13 medals including 5 golds.

As for me, I like sports, though I am not active at it now. When I was at school I did sports more. I liked swimming and I went to the swimming pool regularly. But now I hardly do sports regularly, though I understand that it makes people strong, healthy and optimistic.

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THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE PEOPLE

The Earth is the only planet in the solar system where there is life. For centuries man had lived in harmony with nature until industrialization brought human society into conflict with the natural environment. Today, the conflict between man and nature has acquired a dramatic character. With the development of civilization man’s interference in nature has increased. Every year the world industry pollutes the atmosphere with millions of tons of dust and other harmful substances. The seas and rivers are poisoned with industrial waste, chemical and sewage discharge. People who live in big cities are badly affected by harmful discharge from plants and city transport. The increased noise level is as bad for human health as lack of fresh air and clean water.

Among the most urgent problems are the depletion of the ozone layer, acid rains and global warming that lead to unfavorable changes in the world climate. Another serious problem is disappearance of forests. Some of them die from acid rains, others are cut down. Rain forests disappear at an alarming rate. If man continues to cut down rain forests, more than one million species of plants and animals will become extinct by the year 2030.

Water is often looked upon as a dumping place where sewage and industrial wastes can be washed away and hopefully disappear. As a result some rivers and lakes are so badly polluted that their water is unfit for bathing.

There are a lot of places on our planet that need immediate help. Our country is no exception. The nuclear accident at Chernobyl power plant has seriously aggravated the ecological situation in Belarus. The Chernobyl disaster in neighboring Ukraine in 1986 was the world’s worst nuclear accident. More than 60 % of the fallout from the plant affected Belarusian territory.

Today people are aware that our life depends on the state of the environment. Pollution kills everything that is alive. So nature protection should become everybody’s concern.

II. Read/listen to the Dialogues. Learn underlined useful phrases. You can use them to discuss what businesses can do to protect the environment:

(Everyday Technical English)

Recycling. – Recycling is big business these days, isn’t it?

–Yes, it is definitely is a growing business.

–What do you recycle in your plant?

–Many plastics. Plastics aren’t bio-degradable – they do not break down easily in the environment – so they shouldn’t be thrown away.

–How is plastic recycled then?

–Well, there are basically two methods. One is to break down the chemicals in the plastic into smaller chemical particles. These can then be used in the production of new chemicals.

–Is that the method you use here?

–No, we don’t do that here. We recycle polyethylene and we make it into other products.

–How do you do that?

–By melting it down and then reforming it. Our main products are bin liners for kitchen bins and carrier bags for supermarkets.

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amble, seven articles and twenty-seven amendments; the first ten of them were adopted in 1791 and are called the Bill of Rights.

The Congress of the United States is composed of two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives. Members of the House of Representatives are chosen every second year by direct ballot according to the population figures of their respective states. Senators are elected to six-year terms, two senators from each state independently of its population.

The President is head of the state and Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the USA. The President and Vice-President are elected for a term of four years. The President is elected indirectly in two stages: first electors are chosen in their respective states, and these elect President and Vice-President. There are two main political parties in the USA: the Democratic and the Republican. Each of the fifty states of the USA has a constitution patterned after the federal Constitution, with its divisions of power: legislative, executive, and judicial.

Science and Economy. The Industrial Revolution that started in England did not take long to cross the Atlantic. It brought many changes to American industry between 1776 and 1860.

One key development was the introduction of the factory system, which gathered many workers together in one place. A second development was the American system of mass production, which originated in the firearms industry about 1800. The new system created parts that were interchangeable. This, in turn, allowed the final product to be assembled in stages, each worker specializing in a specific operation. A third development was the application of new sources of power. New forms of business organization, the bank and the corporation, facilitated the growth of industry. The rise of industry changed the relations between the workers and the employers. They became more impersonal and even hostile.

Meanwhile, the organization of work was changing. In 1913 Henry Ford introduced the «moving assembly line». By improving efficiency, it made possible a major saving in labor costs and both higher wages for workers and lower prices for consumers. During the first half of the 20th century mass production of consumer goods such as cars, refrigerators, etc., revolutionized the American way of life.

The century's two world wars spared the USA the devastation suffered by Europe and Asia, and American industries proved capable of great production increases to meet war needs. In 1945 the USA had the greatest productive capacity in the world.

The 20th century has seen the rise and decline of industries in the USA. The auto industry, long the centerpiece of the American economy, has had to struggle to meet the challenge of foreign competition. At present, vehicles produced at such companies as Ford and the General Motors are known worldwide. Over the years many new industries have appeared. These new industries are know as high-technology or high-tech ones. The USA is the world leader in biochemical and genetic engineering, aerospace research and development, communications, computer and information services. Many of these industries are known as high-technology or «high-tech» industries as they depend on the latest developments in technology. High-tech industries are highly automated and thus need fewer workers than traditional industries. All hightech industries have grown and older industries have declined in recent years. The proportion of American workers employed in manufacturing has declined. Service indus-

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of research and many postgraduates are engaged in research for the higher degree, the degree of Doctor.

A university consists of a number of faculties. The teaching is organized in departments, such as engineering, economics, commerce, etc. Education in Britain is not free of charge, it is rather expensive.

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Geographical position. The United States lies in the central part of the North American continent between two oceans: the Atlantic Ocean to the East and the Pacific Ocean to the West. Canada to the North and Mexico to the South are the only countries bordering it. The total area of the USA is over 9 million square kilometers. The capital of the USA is Washington D.C. The population of the country is about 290 million people.

For many decades the USA has been the place where lots of people sought refuge from persecution for political or religious beliefs. That's why in America there are representatives of practically all racial and national groups.

Because of such a huge size of the country the climate differs from one part of the country to another. The USA has eight climatic regions. The coldest climate is in the Northern part. The South has a subtropical climate.

The continental part of the USA consists of the highland regions and two lowland regions. The highland regions are the Appalachian Mountains in the East and the Cordillera in the West. Between the Cordillera and the Appalachian Mountains there are the central lowlands called the prairie, and the eastern lowlands called the Mississippi valley. The Rocky Mountains extend all the way from New Mexico to Alaska. Many rivers cross the country. The most important is the Mississippi. The main lakes are the Great Lakes in the North. The mineral resources vary from precious gold and rare uranium to common lead and zinc. Coal, oil, iron, copper and other minerals are abundant.

The USA consists of three separate parts. These are the Hawaiian Islands, situated in the central part of the Pacific Ocean, Alaska separated by Canada, and the rest of the USA. There are fifty states and the District of Columbia. The states differ very much in size, population and economic development. The biggest cities are New York, Chicago, Los Angeles.

The flag of the USA is called «Stars and Stripes». The stars represent the 50 states, the stripes represent 13 original English colonies, which in 1776 became independent of England.

State system. The United States of America is a federal republic. In 1776, when the independence of the USA was declared, 13 «founding» states entered the federation; from 1959 the federation comprises 50 states. The federal district of Columbia, coinciding with the capital of the country Washington is an independent territorial unit.

The state power is divided into three branches: legislative (the US Congress), executive (the President and his Administration) and judicial(the US Supreme Court).

The form of US government is based on the Constitution of September 17, 1787, adopted after the War of Independence. The US Constitution consists of the Pre-

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Environmentally-friendly products. – You say products are aimed at the green consumer. In what ways are they environmentally-friendly?

–We produce household cleaning products – detergents and so on. They are all phosphate-free, which minimizes damage to the environment.

–What about the packaging?

–We try to use as little packaging as possible. Also, all our bottles are made of recyclable plastic and we use recycled fibre in our boxes. That is what our customers want.

Energy. – We’ve managed to reduce our energy consumption in our factory by about 15 per cent in the last two years.

–That is excellent. How have you managed that?

–Mainly because we’ve invested in a heat recovery system.

–What does that mean exactly?

–Well, we use the exhaust gases from our printing presses to provide energy to heat our dryers.

–What other sources of energy do you use?

–We don’t use any fossil fuels. Most of our power comes from hydro-electric plants. We are hoping to use even more energy from alternative sources in the future – perhaps even wind power.

LEARNING

I. Read/listen to the following interview about Martina’s education: Interviewer: So, Martina, first of all, tell me something about your education. Martina: Well, of course I went to primary school and secondary school. I

really loved primary school. The teachers were fantastic and we all played a lot but at the same time we learnt a lot. When I went to secondary school it was completely different. My secondary school was very traditional. We had to wear a uniform, a blue skirt and jacket, and there were lots of rules. I didn't like it at all.

Int.: What were your favorite subjects at school?

M: Well, I always liked science, so I suppose my favorite subjects were Biology and Chemistry.

Int.: When you left school, what did you do?

M: I went to Manchester University to study Chemistry but I didn't enjoy it. Luckily I had a very nice lecturer called David and he helped me a lot. He suggested a different course, so after the end of the first year I started to study Information Technology. That was basically all about computers. And I enjoyed that a lot more.

I: Have you studied any courses since university?

M: Yes, well a couple of years ago I did a part-time course in new technologies. That was for work really. And I love languages so in the last few years I have studied Italian, German and I've just started a distance-learning course in Russian. It's difficult because you don't have normal classes. It's all on the Internet and it's hard to practise speaking. I don't really enjoy it but there are no places to study Russian in my town.

II. Answer these questions about learning English in your country:

1. When do children start learning English? 2. Is English the first or second for-

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eign language? 3. Is it a compulsory or optional subject? 4. How many years do they learn English at school? 5. Which parts of the language are most important at school (grammar, reading, speaking …)? 6. Can people study English when they leave school? Where? 7. Why do people usually study English after they finish school?

III. Jackie Snow is talking about her Student’s life in London:

I came to London two months ago because I want to be a professional dancer, and the best schools of dance are here in London. I'm doing a course at the National Dance School, which is very hard work, but I'm really enjoying it. The course is expensive, but I work with a theatre group at the weekend. We teach dance to groups of children. I'm living with another girl in a flat in north London. It's small, but it's comfortable. My boyfriend, Tony, lives in the same street with his parents. They're very kind, and often cook meals for me.

I know my parents are worried about me living in London, but it isn't dangerous at all if you're careful. It's so exciting here, there's so much to do and see. It was difficult in the beginning, especially getting to know the Underground, and I didn't know many people, but it's fine now. I have a lot of good friends. I love my Mum and Dad very much, but I don't want to live at home for the rest of my life. I phone home every Sunday, and when I go to a museum or art gallery, I always send them a postcard. Mum reads them, but I don't know if Dad does. (Headway Intermediate, 2 b)

STUDYING TECHNOLOGY

I. A Carrier in Engineering.

Who makes a good engineer? Well, if you're innovative and like a challenge, then engineering may just be the right career field for you. The best engineers really like to solve complex problems. They are also typically true inventors. Math and science is an engineer's playground. So if you struggled through your algebra, this career may not be the right fit for you.

Most engineers work as a team, therefore you should be a team player and possess great skills communicating with others. This will be highly important when planning and creating new projects. Engineers are also practical, innovative, creative and curious about how things work. So many innovative technologies created by engineers help make the world safer and healthier. They help people and improve the environment.

The Belarusian-Russian University may be the ideal University for those young people who want to follow a carrier in Engineering.

II. My University.

«Which University to enter?» is one of the biggest decisions you have to make after leaving school. It determines your entire future life.

This year I entered the Belarusian-Russian University in Mogilev. And now I am a first year student of this University and I am going to become an engineer. It is a dynamic modern university with a long history of providing higher education to meet the needs of society and industry. The University is subordinate to the Ministries of Education of the Republic of Belarus and of the Russian Federation.

The Belarusian-Russian University was founded in 1961 as the Mogilev Me- chanical-Engineering Institute and later was reorganized into a university. It is located

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physics and astronomy in the 16th and 17th centuries (theory of gravitation and three laws of motion) and the inventions of Michael Faraday in the 19th century (the first electric motor, generator and transformer) to the breakthroughs in the 20th century.

British achievements in science and technology in the 20th century include fundamental contributions to modern molecular genetics through the discovery of the three-dimensional molecular structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) by Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and James Watson in 1953, the studies of superconductivity by Brian Josephson, radio-astrophysics of Antony Hewish, etc.

Much pioneering work was done during the 1980s and 1990s. For example, in 1985 the British Antarctic Survey scientists discovered the hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctic; some breakthroughs were made in genetics research including the first pig with a genetically modified heart bred by scientists at Cambridge University, and the world famous cloned sheep Dolly.

Nobel Prizes for science have been won by more than 70 British citizens.

Higher Education in Britain. At 16 young men and women have to decide whether to stay at school, to go on to a college, to look for a job, or to start training for work. All have to think about gaining employment in a job market which demands increasingly skilled workers.

After their period in further education young people have the opportunity to go on to higher education in a university or college, provided they have good 'A' level exam results or good passes in vocational qualifications like the BTEC national diploma. Over the last 15 years, the proportion of young people going into higher education has risen from one in eight to one in three. Most higher education students receive some financial support from local education authorities, with the rest of their money made up through parental support or through the Student Loans Company set up by central government to provide subsidized loans for students. In certain cases large companies sponsor students through their degree courses.

There are more than 80 universities in Britain including the Open University, which teaches via TV and radio, about 400 colleges and institutes of higher education. The two oldest Universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge. Oxford and Cambridge Universities are known for their specific system of education. They preserve an antique way of life and great emphasis is laid on "tutorials". Each student has a tutor who gives him personal instructions. Every week the tutor and his students meet to discuss the work they have done, to criticize it in detail and to set the next week's work.

Until the nineteenth century England had no other universities apart from Oxford and Cambridge. The universities founded between 1850-1930 including London University are known as redbrick universities (because of the favorite building material of the time). Redbrick universities were built to provide a liberal education and give technological training for the poorer students. The universities founded after World War II are called «the new universities» (Kent, Essex, York, etc).

All British universities are private institutions. Every institution is independent, autonomous and responsible only to its governing council, but they all receive financial support from the state.

Students who pass examinations at the end of the three or four years of study get a Bachelor's degree. The first postgraduate degree is normally that of Master conferred for a thesis based on at least one year's full-time work. Universities are centers

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members (hereditary peers and peeresses, life peers and peeresses and two archbishops and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England). Its main legislative function is to examine and revise bills from the Commons, but the Lords cannot normally prevent legislation from becoming law if the Commons insists on it. It also acts in a capacity as the final court of appeal. In recent years the House of Lords has undergone a process of reform to make it more democratic and representative. As a first step, the rights of some 750 hereditary peers to sit and vote in it solely on the basis that they inherited their seats were removed. The remaining hereditary peers are allowed to sit temporarily in the transitional chamber until the full reform programme is in place. The next phase of the House of Lords reform would remove the remaining hereditary peers and create a partly-elected upper house.

General elections are held after Parliament has been 'dissolved', either by a royal proclamation or because the maximum term between elections – five years has expired. The decision on when to hold a general election is made by the Prime Minister. After the general election the Queen appoints the head of the government – the Prime Minister. As a rule the Prime Minister is the leader of the party that has won the election. The Prime Minister appoints the ministers to make up the government. There are three main political parties in Great Britain: the Conservative Party, the Labor party and the Liberal-Democratic party.

Economy and Science. Britain became the world's first industrialized country in the mid-19th century. Wealth was based on manufacturing iron and steel, heavy machinery and cotton textiles, and on coal mining, shipbuilding and trade. Manufacturing still plays an important role and Britain excels in high-technology industries like chemicals, electronics, aerospace and offshore equipment, where British companies are among the world largest and most successful. The British construction industry has made its mark around the world and continues to be involved in prestigious building projects.

The most important industrial developments in the past 20 years or so in Britain have been the exploitation of North Sea oil and gas, and the rapid development of microelectronics technologies and their widespread application in industry and commerce. At the same time service industries have been assuming ever-increasing importance and now account for around two-thirds of output and employment. There has been a steady rise in the share of output and employment-now around 80 and 75 per cent respectively – accounted for by private-sector enterprises as privatization of the economy has progressed.

Britain, the world's fifth largest trading nation, belongs to the European Union (EU), the biggest established trading grouping in the world.

The Government believes that economic decisions are best taken by those competing in the marketplace. It sees its role as one of helping to generate sustainable growth through the maintenance of low inflation and sound public finances. Other policies are aimed at improving the working of markets and encouraging enterprise, efficiency and flexibility through such measures as privatization, deregulation and tax reforms.

Britain has a long tradition of research and innovation in science, technology and engineering in universities, research institutions and industry. Its record of achievement is in many ways unsurpassed, from the contribution of Isaac Newton to

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in the centre of Mogilev. Now it comprises a system of a continuous educational process: Lyceum – College of Architecture and Construction – University – Professional Development and Retraining Institute. The number of undergraduates at the University is 7500. The University has 8 faculties. It trains engineers and economists in compliance with the Belarusian and Russian educational standards.

Entrance to the University is by centralised testing. Those who pass tests successfully are enrolled in the first course. The basic subjects of this year are Higher Mathematics, Physics, History of Belarus, Belarusian, Russian and a Foreign Language, PT classes, etc. These subjects lay the foundation for specialized subsequent years. The University has a good computer network and our library exemplifies a real investment in supporting our students’ learning.

The duration of the University course is five years full-time, starting in September. On successful completion of the course, one may progress to a number of de- gree-level courses – Master and PostGraduate (PhD) courses. The University has a specialized Board for defending theses and awarding the Candidates of Engineering Sciences degrees. Students from foreign countries are an important part of the Belaru- sian-Russian University. The University highly values its many international contacts.

According to the master plan of the BRU, the university is to receive another building which is under construction now. The University has three Halls of Residence situated within a walking distance from it. There are several sports clubs, providing a wide range of sporting opportunities.

III. Engineering Specialties of the Belarusian-Russian University.

Careers in engineering are popular among young people. To work as an engineer is prestigious and you need to get the proper training for it. If one is good at science and math and wants to make a great engineer, the Belarusian-Russian University is a good institution for getting a University diploma in engineering. All industries today need welltrained and qualified technologists, technicians, and managers. Our University offers courses that teach students the skills necessary for a managerial role in the specific industry. Students learn the latest practices and specialize in one or more areas. Before graduation, an engineering student will also have a firm foundation with computer applications that will be used in the engineering career field. There is a number of engineering fields to choose from, like mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, computer engineering, automotive engineering, etc. depending on his/her interests and abilities. Here a quick guide to the BRU engineering majors.

Mechanical Engineering careers are very important. Mechanical engineers are engineers who work with mechanical devices. They develop new ideas, design and improve designs, prepare drawings, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems and things like machinery, aircraft, automobiles, medical devices and much more. Good engineers are in demand, and jobs are plentiful.

To be successful, mechanical engineers must know mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics and energy well. They create machines that improve the quality of people's everyday life. They design tools, machines and equipment used in other engineering fields. The task is to make this equipment more productive and less wasteful. They create assembly lines to help with manufacturing processes. They supervise production in factories, determine the causes of breakdowns, test products to maintain quality, estimate the time and cost to manufacture these products.

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They develop solutions to technical problems. There are also several tools that mechanical engineers use to become experts. These are CAD (Computer Aided Design), and CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing). These tools allow for models and analysis to take place before a product is prototyped.

Mechanical engineers develop new materials. They also analyze the impact of the materials and products they develop on the environment and on people using them. Mechanical engineers use energy, people, machines and information to help organize the manufacturing. They must solve organizational problems. Many mechanical engineers are in management positions.

Mechanical engineers need to do their job well in order to keep the civilized world safe and moving smoothly. A prospective mechanical engineer needs to do well in high school, go to a good college, and do well in it. As you can imagine, mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering specialties.

A Construction Engineering career is a very good career to pursue. Construction is one of the most important industries in the country. It is, perhaps, the only sector in the economy in which employment is projected to grow. New graduates can expect 100 % placement. Construction engineering majors learn how to build civilizations, or at least, the physical infrastructure of civilization, including highways, bridges, airports, railroads, buildings, dams, and reservoirs. Construction engineers plan, design and construct many types of facilities: commercial (office buildings and shopping centers), institutional (hospitals and schools), industrial (factories and refineries), residential (homes and apartments), civil (highways and utilities). Construction engineering is one of the oldest engineering specialties. As a construction engineer I will be directly responsible for the health and well-being of citizens. We learn how to work with the natural environment to build things that will not damage the planet. Buildings and other structures should withstand outside forces like wind and their own internal weight and should be safe. Therefore, it is of great importance that I do my job well. And this means that to become a construction engineer I need to work hard. Becoming a construction engineer isn’t as easy as simply getting a college degree in civil engineering. We actually have to study and prepare very hard. We need to get good grades.

Although construction may be regarded as a single activity, in fact it is multitasking. Normally the job is managed by the construction manager, supervised by the project manager, design engineer or project architect. While these people work in offices, every construction project requires a large number of laborers to complete the physical task of construction.

Careers in Computer Engineering are very hot right now and they look like they will only get hotter. It’s a good idea to choose a career in computer engineering. As you may guess, computer engineering careers deal with computers and software and computer engineers are trained to work with computer software and hardware as well as computer-controlled devices. They learn both the technical side and the theoretical side to working with computers. They focus on the design, the development, and the integration of everything that is related to computer software and hardware. Some of the specialty areas include algorithms, circuits and signals, computer organization and architecture, database systems, digital logic and signal processing, electronics, operating systems, software engineering, and computer networking.

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Mogilev became the center of the province after the reunification with Russia in 1772. During the First World War the Supreme Commander-in-Chief Headquarters were based in Mogilev. Soviet power was established here in November 1917. Mogilev has been the center of the region since 1938.

Mogilev is one of the largest industrial centers of Belarus and the region. It produces more than 50 % of the total industrial output of the whole region. There are industrial enterprises producing chemical fibers, passenger elevators, wheeled prime movers, electric engines, fabrics, shoes and other consumer goods. Mogilev is a large transport center. Railway, automobile, river and pipeline transportation are well developed here.

Mogilev is the scientific and cultural center of the region. It has 3 state Universities, the Mogilev branch of Belarusian Academy of Music, the branch of Belarusian Institute of Law, some colleges and vocational training schools. There are also some museums and theatres.

GREAT BRITAIN. GENERAL OUTLINE

Geographical position. Great Britain, the official name – the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, is situated on two large islands and over five hundred small ones. The total area of Great Britain is 240,000 sq. kms, its population is 56,000,000 people. In the North-West and West the country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea, in the East - by the North Sea. The island of Great Britain is separated from France by the English Channel. Northern Ireland, which is a part of Great Britain and which is situated on the island of Ireland, is separated from Great Britain by the North Channel.

The island of Great Britain is divided into two parts: mountainous (in the North and West of the island) and lowland (in the South and East). There are no very long rivers in Great Britain. The most important rivers are the Thames (the deepest) and the Severn (the longest).

Due to the moderating influence of the sea Great Britain has an insular climate, rather humid and mild, without striking discrepancy between seasons. Great Britain is not very rich in mineral resources. It has some deposits of coal and iron ore and vast deposits of oil and gas that were discovered in the North Sea.

Great Britain consists of four main parts: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Administratively Great Britain is divided into 55 counties. The biggest' cities of Great Britain are London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Edinburgh, and Cardiff. England is the largest part of Great Britain.

State system. Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy. Officially the head of state is the Queen (or the King). However, the power of the Queen in Great Britain is not absolute. She acts only on the advice of the ministers and Parliament. Parliament in Great Britain has existed since 1265 and is the oldest Parliament in the world. It consists of three elements – Monarchy, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. They meet only on occasions of ceremonial significance, such as the state opening of Parliament, although the agreement of all three is normally required for legislation.

The House of Commons consists of 659 elected members called Members of Parliament or MPs. Election to the House of Commons is an important part of the British democratic system. The House of Lords currently consists of 688 non-elected