Химия дефектов - u124

1

Fbgbkl_jkl\h h[jZah\Zgby Jhkkbckdhc N_^_jZpbb

<hjhg_`kdbc ]hkm^Zjkl\_gguc mgb\_jkbl_l

Obfbq_kdbc nZdmevl_l

DZn_^jZ h[s_c obfbb

OBFBY >?N?DLH<

F?LH>BQ?KDB? MD:A:GBY

^ey klm^_glh\ b dmjkh\

obfbq_kdh]h nZdmevl_lZ

ChklZ\bl_eb

= < K_f_gh\Z

L I Kmrdh\Z

<hjhg_`

2000

2

§ Ghf_gdeZlmjZ lhq_qguo ^_n_dlh\

Hkgh\gu_ lbiu jZamihjy^hq_gby \ djbklZeeZo

J_Zevgu_ djbklZeebq_kdb_ \_s_kl\Z \k_]^Z kh^_j`Zl lh beb bgh_ dhebq_kl \h kljmdlmjguo g_kh\_jr_gkl\ - ^_n_dlh\ hdZau\Zxsbo agZqbl_evgh_ \ebygb_ gZ k\hckl\Z IjbqbgZ ihy\e_gby lZdh]h jh^Z g_kh\_jr_gkl\ aZdexqZ_lky \ g_ba [_`ghf dhglZdl_ djbklZeeZ k hdjm`Zxs_c kj_^hc < kemqZ_ h[f_gZ wg_j]b_c \ djbklZee_ ihy\eyxlky l g l_ieh\u_ ^_n_dlu Z h[f_g \_s_kl\hf ijb\h^bl d

^_n_dlZf g_kl_obhf_ljbb beb ijbf_kguf ^_n_dlZf

>_n_dlu deZkkbnbpbjmxl ih bo jZaf_jZf b ijhly`_gghklb h[eZkl_c j_ r_ldb gZ dhlhju_ jZkijhkljZgy_lky bo \ha^_ckl\b_ Khhl\_lkl\_ggh wlhfm jZa ebqZxl lhq_qgu_ ebg_cgu_ ih\_joghklgu_ b h[t_fgu_ ^_n_dlu. Hkgh\guf hlebqb_f lhq_qguo ^_n_dlh\ y\ey_lky lh qlh hgb fh]ml kms_kl\h\Zlv \ l_jfh ^bgZfbq_kdb jZ\gh\_kghf khklhygbb ijb ex[hc dhg_qghc l_fi_jZlmj_

<h fgh]bo nbabdh-obfbq_kdbo ijhp_kkZo lhq_qgu_ ^_n_dlu ijhy\eyxl we_dljbq_kdmx Zdlb\ghklv \uihegyy nmgdpbb ^hghjh\ beb Zdp_ilhjh\ Ijb wlhf ijbgylZ kbkl_fZ wnn_dlb\guo aZjy^h\ ih^ dhlhjufb ihgbfZxl aZjy^ ^_ n_dlZ hlghkbl_evgh ghjfZevguo khklZ\eyxsbo b^_Zevgh]h djbklZeeZ

>ey hibkZgby k\hckl\ l\_j^uo l_e kh^_j`Zsbo ^_n_dlu bkihevam_lky g_ kdhevdh kbkl_f kbf\heh\ GZb[he__ jZkijhkljZg_ggufb y\eyxlky ih^oh^ ij_^ eh`_gguc Dj_]_jhf b <bgdhf - f_lh^ Zlhfguo kljmdlmjguo we_f_glh\ b kih kh[ jZajZ[hlZgguc Jbahf - kbkl_fZ hlghkbl_evguo khklZ\eyxsbo _^bgbp Ijb wlhf djbklZee ij_^klZ\ey_lky kh\hdmighklvx d\ZabqZklbp dhlhju_ fh]ml \aZb fh^_ckl\h\Zlv ^jm] k ^jm]hf ijbq_f h^gb we_f_glu fh]ml bkq_aZlv Z ^jm]b_ ih y\eylvky < lZ[ebp_ ij_^klZ\e_gu hkgh\gu_ kbf\heu ghf_gdeZlmju Dj_]_jZ-

<bgdZ b JbaZ

3

LZ[ebpZ

Kbf\heu ^_n_dlh\ \ ghf_gdeZlmj_ Dj_]_jZ-<bgdZ b JbaZ

Kljmdlmjguc we_f_gl	H[hagZq_gby
j_r_ldb	Dj_]_jZ	JbaZ
:lhf \ j_]meyjghf mae_	F×F O×O	F+½ +F O-½ -O
K\h[h^gh_ f_`^hmaeb_	V×i	0½D
G_cljZevgZy \ZdZgkby \ dZlbhgghc	V×M	0½ +M
ih^j_r_ld_
G_cljZevgZy \ZdZgkby \ Zgbhgghc	V×X	0½ -X
ih^j_r_ld_
<ZdZgkby- Zdp_ilhj \ dZlbhgghc	V¢M	e-½ +M
ih^j_r_ld_
<ZdZgkby -^hghj \ Zgbhgghc ih^j_	V∙M	p+½ -X
r_ld_
G_cljZevguc ^_n_dl aZf_s_gby	F×M	F½ +M
Iheh`bl_evgh aZjy`_gguc ^_n_dl	F∙M	p+½F2+½ +M
aZf_s_gby
HljbpZl_evgh aZjy`_gguc ^_n_dl	F¢X	e-½F2-½ -X
aZf_s_gby
DZlbhg f_lZeeZ \ f_`^hmaebb	M∙i	p+½M+½D
:gbhg \ f_`^hmaebb	X¢i	e-½X-½D
G_cljZevguc Zlhf ijbf_kb \ f_`	F×i	F½D
^hmaebb
³:glbkljmdlmjgu_´^_n_dlu	M×X; X×M	M½ X; X½ M
Ih\_joghklguc ma_e g_aZgyluc	V×S	0½ S

>ey hibkZgby ijhp_kkh\ ^_n_dlhh[jZah\Zgby bkihevamxl f_lh^ d\Zabob fbq_kdhc ZgZeh]bb dh]^Z d j_Zdpbyf ^_n_dlh\ bo gZibkZgbx bklhedh\Zgbx ijbf_gyxl lhl `_ ih^oh^ qlh b d h[uqguf obfbq_kdbf j_Zdpbyf Ijb wlhf g_ h[oh^bfh kh[ex^Zlv ijbgpbiu we_dljhg_cljZevghklb fZl_jbZevgh]h [Z eZgkZ Z lZd`_ ijbgpbiZ khojZg_gby hlghr_gby qbkeZ maeh\ Ihke_^gbc

4

ijbgpbi aZdexqZ_lky \ lhf qlh khhlghr_gb_ qbkeZ djbklZeeh]jZnbq_kdbo ihab pbc jZagh]h lbiZ \ j_r_ld_ y\ey_lky ihklhygguf g_aZ\bkbfh hl ^_ckl\bl_evgh]h khklZ\Z kh_^bg_gby

Kms_kl\m_l g_kdhevdh fh^_e_c l_ieh\h]h jZamihjy^hq_gby Ijb jZamihjy ^hq_gbb ih Nj_gd_ex qZklbpZ ba j_]meyjgh]h maeZ j_r_ldb kf_sZ_lky \ f_`^h maeb_ lZdbf h[jZahf l g ^_n_dl Nj_gd_ey y\ey_lky iZjguf \ZdZgkby \ mae_ b f_`^hma_evguc Zlhf Wlhl \b^ jZamihjy^hq_gby \ [bgZjghf kh_^bg_gbb ijhbk oh^bl \ dZdhc-eb[h h^ghc ih^j_r_ld_ JZamihjy^hq_gb_ ih Rhlldb ij_^klZ\ ey_l ijhp_kk h[jZah\Zgby \ZdZglgh]h maeZ aZ kq_l moh^Z qZklbpu gZ ih\_joghklv djbklZeeZ >ey djbklZeeh\ [bgZjguo kh_^bg_gbc wlhl \b^ jZamihjy^hq_gby aZ ljZ]b\Z_l h[_ ih^j_r_ldb Z \ZdZgkbb h[jZamxlky \ wd\b\Ze_glguo dhebq_kl\Zo

:glbkljmdlmjgh_ jZamihjy^hq_gb_ gZ[ex^Z_fh_ lhevdh \ djbklZeeZo kh_^b g_gbc aZdexqZ_lky \ h[f_g_ qZklbp jZagh]h khjlZ f_klZfb Hq_\b^gh qlh h[f_ gb\Zxsb_ky f_klZfb qZklbpu ^he`gu g_ kbevgh hlebqZlvky ih k\h_c obfbq_ kdhc ijbjh^_

<hijhku

1.Y\ey_lky eb \hagbdgh\_gb_ kh[kl\_gguo lhq_qguo ^_n_dlh\ \ djbklZee_ kZfh ijhba\hevguf ijhp_kkhf"K q_f wlh k\yaZgh"

2.Ihq_fm ^_n_dlghklv djbklZeebq_kdbo l\_j^uo l_e \hajZklZ_l k ih\ur_gb_f l_fi_jZlmju" Ij_^eh`bl_ dZq_kl\_ggmx fh^_ev ijhp_kkZ ^_n_dlhh[jZah\Z gby h[tykgyxsmx wdkihg_gpbZevgmx l_fi_jZlmjgmx aZ\bkbfhklv dhgp_gljZ pbb ^_n_dlh\

3.Ij_^iheh`bf bf__lky fhghdjbklZee \ dhlhjhf \k_ maeu j_r_ldb aZgylu kh[ kl\_ggufb ZlhfZfb Z \k_ f_`^hmaeby - k\h[h^gu Fh`gh eb kqblZlv ^Zgguc djbklZee b^_Zevguf"

4.< dZdbo djbklZeeZo k\h[h^gu_ we_dljhgu g_ fh]ml jZkkfZljb\Zlvky dZd ^_ n_dlu"

5

5.<ghkyl eb we_dljhggu_ ^_n_dlu \deZ^ \ \_ebqbgm dhgnb]mjZpbhgghc wgljh ibb djbklZeeZ"H[hkgmcl_ k\hc hl\_l

6.DZdh\Z deZkkbnbdZpby ^_n_dlh\ ih ]_hf_ljbq_kdhfm ijbagZdm" Qlh \Zf ba \_klgh h deZkkbnbdZpbb ^_n_dlh\ ih \b^m jZamihjy^hq_gby djbklZeebq_kdhc j_r_ldb"

7.DZdb_ ^_n_dlu djbklZeeZ y\eyxlky jZ\gh\_kgufb Z dZdb_ - g_jZ\gh\_kgufb"

Ihq_fm"

8.DZdb_ \b^u \ZdZgkbc \u agZ_l_ b \ q_f bo jZaebqby"

9.IjhZgZebabjmcl_ dZq_kl\_ggh k\hckl\Z l\_j^uo l_e hij_^_ey_fu_ lhq_qgufb ^_n_dlZfb

10.DZdb_ lbiu lhq_qguo ^_n_dlh\ fh]ml ijbkmlkl\h\Zlv \ djbklZee_ qbklh]h ijhklh]h \_s_kl\Z"

11. DZdb_ kh[kl\_ggu_ lhq_qgu_ ^_n_dlu fh]ml [ulv ^hfbgbjmxsbfb \ ke_ ^mxsbo nZaZo Z f_lZeebq_kdZy f_^v [ dj_fgbc \ &X$X ] $J%U ^ 1D&O">ey hl\_lZ gZ wlhl \hijhk \hkihevamcl_kv ^Zggufb lZ[ebp - Ijbeh `_gby

12.Qlh ihgbfZxl ih^ wnn_dlb\guf aZjy^hf lhq_qgh]h ^_n_dlZ"DZdb_ ^_n_dlu y\eyxlky ^hghjZfb Zdp_ilhjZfb dZdhc aZjy^ hgb ijbh[j_lZxl"

13. Knhjfmebjmcl_ \ q_f khklhbl jZaebqb_ f_`^m f_lh^hf Zlhfguo kljmdlmj guo we_f_glh\ Dj_]_jZ-<bgdZ b kbkl_fhc hlghkbl_evguo khklZ\eyxsbo _^b gbp JbaZ

14.< q_f kmsghklv d\Zabobfbq_kdh]h ih^oh^Z ijb jZkkfhlj_gbb ijhp_kkh\ ^_ n_dlhh[jZah\Zgby" DZdb_ ijbgpbiu gZ^h kh[ex^Zlv ijb aZibkb mjZ\g_gbc ijhp_kkh\ ^_n_dlhh[jZah\Zgby b jZa\_jgmluo nhjfme"

AZ^Zqb b mijZ`g_gby

1.Bkihevamy kbf\hebdm Dj_]_jZ b JbaZ gZibrbl_ nhjfmem b^_Zevgh]h djbklZe eZ ^ey ke_^mxsbo kh_^bg_gbc Z NaCl , CaF2 [ Cu2O , ZnSe \ KI , SiO2 .

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2.K bkihevah\Zgb_f kbkl_f Dj_]_jZ b JbaZ aZibrbl_ kbf\heu kh[kl\_gguo lh q_qguo ^_n_dlh\ b mdZ`bl_ y\eyxlky hgb ^hghjZfb beb Zdp_ilhjZfb

Z Zlhf k_ju \ f_`^hmaebb djbklZeeZ ZnS \ZdZgkby oehjZ \ oehjb^_ [Zjby

\ZdZgkby fZ]gby \ MgO ; [ Zlhf dZ^fby \ f_`^hmaebb djbklZeeZ CdTe \ZdZgkby dbkehjh^Z \ Al2O3 ; \ZdZgkby dZeby \ oehjb^_ dZeby

\ Zlhf f_^b \ f_`^hmaebb djbklZeeZ Cu2O \ZdZgkby dZevpby \ kmevnb^_ dZevpby \ZdZgkby k_e_gZ \ HgSe.

3.GZibrbl_ kbf\heu ^_n_dlh\ aZf_s_gby ^_n_dlu - aZjy`_gu h[jZamxsboky ijb e_]bjh\Zgbb

Z djbklZeeZ Ge - nhknhjhf ZrO2 - hdkb^hf dZevpby GaP - pbgdhf [ djbklZeeZ Si - furvydhf TiO2 - hdkb^hf pbgdZ CdS - nhknhjhf

\ djbklZeeZ Al - pbgdhf CdO - hdkb^hf ]Zngby IV), InAs - k_jhc

Ijb aZibkb bkihevamcl_ kbf\hebdm Dj_]_jZ b JbaZ.

4.GZibrbl_ k bkihevah\Zgb_f kbkl_f Dj_]_jZ b JbaZ b mq_lhf \hafh`ghc bh gbaZpbb ^_n_dlh\ ke_^mxsb_ ijhp_kku jZamihjy^hq_gby \ djbklZeeZo

ih Rhlldb

Z ZnO , FeCl2, HgTl2Se4; [) AgCl, Cr2O3, PbTiO3;

\) KBr, Al2O3 , MgGa2O4; ih Nj_gd_ex

Z Si, AlCl3;

[) Ge, CaF2;

\ C ZefZa MgCl2;

Zglbkljmdlmjgh_

Z InSb;

[ AuCu;

\ FeAl.

5. GZibrbl_ jZa\_jgmlu_ nhjfmeu

Z nZau FeO dhlhjZy bf__l \ZdZgkbc \ dZlbhgghc ih^j_r_ld_ aZ kq_l jZamihjy^hq_gby ih Nj_gd_ex [ nZau InSb kh kl_i_gvx Zglbkljmdlmjgh]h jZamihjy^hq_gby

\ djbklZeeZ NaCl \ dhlhjhf fhe \k_o maeh\ \ZdZglgu aZ kq_l jZamih jy^hq_gby ih Rhlldb

6.KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gby ^_n_dlhh[jZah\Zgby b jZa\_jgmlu_ nhjfmeu kh_^bg_ gbc \ dhlhjuo ijhbahreb ke_^mxsb_ ijhp_kku jZamihjy^hq_gby

ih Rhlldb Z MgCl2 [ CuF2 \ Na2S;

ih Nj_gd_ex \ Zgbhgghc ih^j_r_ld_

7

Z GeO2 [ ThO2 \ CaF2 ;

Zglbkljmdlmjgh_

Z MgxFe1-xSiO3; [ MnAl2O4 \ NiCr2O4.

§ Hldehg_gb_ hl kl_obhf_ljbb <ebygb_ g_kl_obhf_ljbb gZ k\hckl\Z l\_j^hnZaguo fZl_jbZeh\

>ey obfbq_kdbo kh_^bg_gbc \ l\_j^hf khklhygbb ihfbfh l_ieh\uo ^_n_d lh\ \hafh`gh b ijbkmlkl\b_ l g ^_n_dlh\ g_kl_obhf_ljbb ihy\eyxsboky \ke_^kl\b_ h[f_gZ \_s_kl\hf k ^jm]bfb nZaZfb

G_kl_obhf_ljby - h[t_dlb\gh kms_kl\mxs__ y\e_gb_ ijhy\eyxs__ky \ \b^_ kZfhijhba\hevgh]h gZjmr_gby qbke_gguo khhlghr_gbc f_`^m dhfihg_g lZfb kh_^bg_gby Ijb wlhf fbgbfmfm k\h[h^ghc wg_j]bb djbklZeeZ khhl\_lkl\m _l g_ kljh]h kl_obhf_ljbq_kdbc khklZ\ LZdbf h[jZahf obfbq_kdh_ kh_^bg_gb_ kms_kl\m_l dZd mklhcqb\Zy ]hfh]_ggZy nZaZ \ g_dhlhjhc h[eZklb khklZ\h\ dhlh jmx gZau\Zxl h[eZklvx ]hfh]_gghklb ?_ \_ebqbgm oZjZdl_jbamxl hldehg_gb _f hl kl_obhf_ljbb ihgbfZy ih^ gbf jZaghklv f_`^m hlghr_gb_f qbk_e Zlh fh\ jZagh]h khjlZ \ j_Zevghf djbklZee_ $m+δBn b lZdbf `_ khhlghr_gb_f \ b^_ Zevghf kl_obhf_ljbq_kdhf kh_^bg_gbb $mBn:

=(m+δ) / n - m/n = δ/n.

A^_kv δ - iZjZf_lj g_kl_obhf_ljbb dhlhjuc fh`_l [ulv iheh`bl_evguf b hljb

pZl_evguf

Ihy\e_gb_ h[eZklb ]hfh]_gghklb gZ [Za_ obfbq_kdh]h kh_^bg_gby k\yaZgh k \hagbdgh\_gb_f l\_j^uo jZkl\hjh\ dZd k h^gbf lZd b k ^jm]bf dhfihg_glhf qlh hljZ`Z_lky gZ nZah\hc ^bZ]jZff_ kbkl_fu Ijb wlhf kZf kl_obhf_ljbq_kdbc khklZ\ fh`_l e_`Zlv \gmljb h[eZklb ]hfh]_gghklb - wlh l g ^\mklhjhggyy nZaZ

Gh kms_kl\mxl b ijbf_ju h^ghklhjhggbo nZa ij_^_evguo b g_ij_^_evguo

nhjfbjmxsboky gZ hkgh\_ dZdh]h-eb[h kh_^bg_gby khklZ\ dhlhjh]h e_`bl aZ ij_^_eZfb h[eZklb ]hfh]_gghklb nZau

8

Baf_g_gb_ kl_obhf_ljbq_kdh]h khklZ\Z djbklZeeZ \hafh`gh _keb \ g_f ihy\eyxlky ^hfbgbjmxsb_ lhq_qgu_ ^_n_dlu dZdh]h-eb[h h^gh]h \b^Z Ih ijZ \bem nZa =b[[kZ ^\monZagh_ jZ\gh\_kb_ \ [bgZjghc kbkl_f_ [b\ZjbZglgh ih wlhfm khklZ\ obfbq_kdh]h kh_^bg_gby Z agZqbl b dhgp_gljZpby ^hfbgbjmxsbo ^_n_dlh\ g_kl_obhf_ljbb aZ\bkyl hl \g_rgbo mkeh\bc - ^Z\e_gby iZjZ b l_fi_ jZlmju GZijbf_j ^ey jZ\gh\_kby kh_^bg_gby $mBn k iZjhf h^gh]h ba dhfih g_glh\ bf__f

A(g) ↔ A×A + V∙B + e′

K = [V∙B] n / PA = [V∙B]2 / PA ; [V∙B] = K1/2PA1/2

Gh dhgklZglZ jZ\gh\_kby.aZ\bkbl hl l_fi_jZlmju ihwlhfm
[V∙B] = PA1/2 exp{ S/ 2k} exp { - H / 2kT},	(1)

]^_ S, H - baf_g_gb_ wgljhibb b wglZevibb \ ijhp_kk_ d\Zabobfbq_kdhc j_Zd pbb MjZ\g_gb_ mdZau\Z_l gZ k\yav hldehg_gby hl kl_obhf_ljbb k hkgh\gufb l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdbfb iZjZf_ljZfb JZkkfhlj_ggZy ko_fZ kZfhijhba\hevgh]h hl dehg_gby hl kl_obhf_ljbb fh`_l [ulv iheh`_gZ \ hkgh\m bkdmkkl\_ggh]h ijb gm^bl_evgh]h ^_n_dlhh[jZah\Zgby ijb baf_g_gbb \g_rgbo mkeh\bc \ jZkkfhl j_gghf ijbf_j_ - \ mkeh\byo ih\ur_ggh]h ^Z\e_gby iZjZ dhfihg_glZ :

<hijhku

1.DZdb_ ijhp_kku ^_n_dlhh[jZah\Zgby \ djbklZeebq_kdbo kh_^bg_gbyo fh]ml ijb\_klb d hldehg_gbx hl kl_obhf_ljbb"Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju

2.Fh`gh eb ihemqblv djbklZee [bgZjgh]h kh_^bg_gby kl_obhf_ljbq_kdh]h kh klZ\Z";m^ml eb ijbkmlkl\h\Zlv \ g_f lhq_qgu_ ^_n_dlu"

3.< dZdbo _^bgbpZo \ujZ`Z_lky \_ebqbgZ hldehg_gby hl kl_obhf_ljbb"

4.G_h[oh^bfh ihemqblv djbklZee kh_^bg_gby FO O - e_lmqbc dhfihg_gl k aZ ^Zgghc \_ebqbghc hldehg_gby hl kl_obhf_ljbb DZdb_ l_ogheh]bq_kdb_ iZjZ f_lju kbgl_aZ gZ^h ijb wlhf kljh]h dhgljhebjh\Zlv"

9

5.DZdbfb nZdlhjZfb k lhqdb aj_gby ]_hf_ljbq_kdhc l_jfh^bgZfbdb hij_^_ey_l ky rbjbgZ h[eZklb ]hfh]_gghklb nZau"

6.< kbkl_f_ : - < bf_xlky ^\_ klZ[bevgu_ ijhf_`mlhqgu_ nZau :< b :<2.

KlZg^Zjlgu_ k\h[h^gu_ wg_j]bb h[jZah\Zgby kh_^bg_gbc ba dhfihg_glh\ kh klZ\eyxl G0f, 298 (AB) = - d>` fhev G0f,298 (AB2) = - d>` fhev

Ij_^klZ\vl_ \b^ h]b[Zxs_c G-djb\hc wlhc kbkl_fu DZdZy ba nZa – AB beb

AB2 - ijb ijhqbo jZ\guo mkeh\byo [m^_l h[eZ^Zlv [he__ rbjhdhc h[eZklvx ]hfh]_gghklb"

7.>ey kh_^bg_gbc k dZdbf lbihf obfbq_kdhc k\yab [he__ oZjZdl_jgh h[jZah\Z gb_ k rbjhdbfb h[eZklyfb ]hfh]_gghklb"

8.DZdb_ we_f_glu qZs_ \k_]h h[jZamxl g_kl_obhf_ljbq_kdb_ kh_^bg_gby" Ih q_fm"

9.M dZdbo ba i_j_qbke_gguo kh_^bg_gbc fh`gh h`b^Zlv ^hklZlhqgh rbjhdmx h[eZklv ]hfh]_gghklb BN; CaO; FeS; NiTe; Cu2O?

AZ^Zqb b mijZ`g_gby

1.<xkpbl )H1-x2 ih j_amevlZlZf obfbq_kdh]h ZgZebaZ kh^_j`bl fZk db kehjh^Z GZc^bl_ nhjfmem nZau b \ujZabl_ __ lZd qlh[u Z g_p_ehqbke_gguc bg^_dk [ue m dbkehjh^Z [ - m f_lZeeZ DZdb_ \b^u Zlhfguo ^_n_dlh\ fh]ml ^hfbgbjh\Zlv \ kh_^bg_gbb ijb lZdhf khklZ\_" KhklZ\vl_ jZa\_jgmlu_ nhj fmeu nZau \ lhf b \ ^jm]hf kemqZ_

2.Nhjfmem hdkb^Z mjZgZ ,9fh`gh ij_^klZ\blv \ \b^_ 822,18 beb 80,91O2 GZ ibkZlv jZa\_jgmlu_ nhjfmeu nZau \ lhf b \ ^jm]hf kemqZ_ DZdZy ba wlbo nhjfme ijZ\bevgh hlh[jZ`Z_l ^_n_dlghklv djbklZeeZ _keb ba\_klgh qlh iehlghklv h[jZaph\ m\_ebq_gZ ih kjZ\g_gbx kh kl_obhf_ljbq_dbf khklZ\hf" dZdhc lbi ijh\h^bfhklb fh`gh h`b^Zlv m wlh]h kh_^bg_gby"

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4.< fhghhdkb^_ lblZgZ ^hfbgbjmxsbfb KL> y\eyxlky ^_n_dlu ih Rhlldb GZibrbl_ jZa\_jgmlmx nhjfmem ^ey khklZ\Z TiO1,27 .

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9.H[eZklv ]hfh]_gghklb PbS h]jZgbq_gZ khklZ\Zfb hij_^_ey_fufb nhjfmeZfb

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