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1. Stylistic devices (SDs) based on interrelation between primary and derivative meanings: metaphor (allegory, personification), metonymy (synecdoche) and irony in English and Ukrainian Derivative logical meaning can be regarded as a secondary one and which is derived from the primary one by means of metaphor or metonymy. In the context a word realizes one meaning, if two meanings are realized, it mixes the conversation. And when a word realizes the primary logical and derivative meanings, we register a stylistic device. Such interaction between the derivative and logical meanings constitutes a polysemantic stylistic device, when a word materializes several meanings in the context [Than hate me, you will, if ever now. Now while the world is bent by deeds to cross]. The primary meaning of the word "hate" is to "dislike strongly". This basic meaning has brought to life some derivatives [to bear malice to, to feel a repulsive attitude]. All these derivative meanings interact with the primary one and this network of meanings constitutes the polysemantic effect.

Metaphor is the transference of the name of one object into another object based on the similarity of the objects. From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetorics, the term was known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning. Metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. The creator of the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have something in common. 

Metaphor can be represented by any notional part of speech:

Ішов ночей повільний караван (Л. Костенко).

Застерігає доля нас зрання, що калинова кров така густа (В. Стус).

The leaves were falling sorrowfully.

We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.

Simple metaphor that expresses indiscrete notion may comprise a word, word combination or sentence. Prolonged or sustained metaphor is metaphor that consists of a number of sentences or even a paragraph. In this case the word that has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph to realize their figurative meaning and unfold the meaning of the first, initial metaphor.

Personification and allegory

An allegory is a concrete representation of an abstract idea or concept. It usually features a complex combination of human and animal figures, objects and actions. An allegory often contains one or more 'personifications' - representations of (usually abstract) concepts in the form of a person. One of the seven virtues, for example, is personified by Dame Justice.

Personifications are often depicted by stationary figures, while allegories usually feature some form of action or activity. Allegories and personifications were popular in all forms of art, from classical antiquity to the late nineteenth century and were employed to represent a wealth of different concepts.

Metonymies are frequently used in literature and in everyday speech. A metonymy is a word or phrase that is used to stand in for another word. Sometimes a metonymy is chosen because it is a well-known characteristic of the word.

One famous example of metonymy is the saying, "The pen is mightier than the sword," which originally came from Edward Bulwer Lytton's play Richelieu. This sentence has two examples of metonymy:

• The "pen" stands in for "the written word."

• The "sword" stands in for "military aggression and force."

A synecdoche is a type of trope, which is a figure of speech. When used in literature, a synecdoche will add to the visual imagery of the passage and enhance the reader’s experience.     

Synecdoche Forms

There are several different forms of synecdoche examples including:

• A synecdoche may use part of something to represent the entire whole.

• It may use an entire whole thing to represent a part of it.  

• It can use a word or phrase as a class that will express less or more than the word or phrase actually means.  

• It may use a group of things that refer to a larger group or use a large group to refer to a smaller group.  

• A synecdoche may also refer to an object by the material it is made from or refer to the contents in a container by the name of the container.

Irony.This is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings, dictionaiy and contextual. They stand in opposition to each other, e.g. She is a charming middle-aged lady with a face like a bucket of mud and if she has washed her hair since Coolidge's second term, I'll eat my spare tyre, rim and all (R.Ch.). The word "charming" here has acquired the meaning which is opposite to its primary dictionary meaning. This becomes clear from the accompanying context. This word bears a logical stress and is strongly marked by intonation.

In this stylistic device it is always possible to indicate the exact word whose contextual meaning is quite opposite to its dictionary meaning. That is why this type of irony is called verbal irony. But in many cases we may feel the ironic effect, but we cannot identify the exact word in whose meaning we can see the contradiction between the said and the implied. The effect of irony in such cases is created by a number of statements, by the whole of the text. This type of irony is called sustained, and it is formed by the contradiction of the writer's considerations and the generally accepted moral and ethical codes. Such examples can be found in the works by Jonathan Swift, Charles Dickens, Sinclair Lewis.

Irony should not be confused with humour, though they have much in common. But humour always causes laughter. What is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and the negative. Here indeed, irony and humour have common points. But irony does not always create a humorous effect. It may express irritation, displeasure, pity or regret, as in the sentence "How clever of you!". Since irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning, only positive concepts can be used in their logical dictionary meanings.

2. SDs based on interrelation between denotational and emotive meanings: oxymoron , epithet in English and Ukrainian..

Oxymoron.This is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, because they are opposite in sense, e.g. sweet sorrow, nice rascal, horribly beautiful. Each oxymoron is a combination of two semantically contradictory notions that help to emphasize contradictory qualities as a dialectical unity simultaneously existing in the described phenomenon. One of the two members of the oxymoron points out the feature which is universally recognized, while the other shows a purely subjective individual perception of the object.

Oxymoron may have the structural model Adj.+Noun, e.g. loving hate, cold fire, etc. Here the subjective part of the oxymoron is embodied in the attribute-epithet. In this structural model the resistance of the two component parts to fusion manifests itself most strongly. Another model is Adv.+Adj. Here the change of meaning in the first element is more rapid, and the resistance to the unifying process is not so strong.

Besides, there exist other structural models, in which verbs are used. Such verbal structures as to shout mutely, to cry silently seem to strengthen the idea and show the writer's individual approach to it. Sometimes the tendency to combine the uncombinative is revealed in structurally different forms. Here the originality and specificity of oxymoron becomes especially evident, e.g. the street damaged by improvements (O.H.), silence was louder than thunder (U.). The reader immediately feels that, in the first example, the author is critical of the improvements and shows that they were quite unnecessary, in the second -silence has a dangerous quality and produces a deafening effect on the listener. In this way a lot of additional, objective information is conveyed in the oxymoronic structure.

Though oxymorons rarely become trite, some of them have really become traditional and show a high degree of the speaker's spiritual involvement in the situation, e.g. awfully nice, terribly sorry. Here the qualifying adjectives serve as intensifiers.

Epithet.Epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object from the subjective point of view. Its basic feature is its emotiveness and subjectivity: the characteristic attached to the object or quality is always chosen by the speaker himself. Epithets should not be confused with logical attributes, which are purely objective, non-evaluative. They are descriptive and indicate an inherent or prominent feature of the object or phenomenon. E.g. in green meadows, white snow,high mountains we deal with logical attributes. They indicate those qualities of the objects which are generally recognized. But in mild wind, heartburning smile the adjectives are purely evaluative, i.e. they are epithets. The epithet makes a strong impression upon the reader and the latter begins to see and think of things as the writer wants him to.

From the semantic point of view epithets can be divided into affective (associated) and figurative (transferred, unassociated). Affective epithets are those which point to a feature which is essential to the object they describe, the idea expressed in the epithet being inherent in the concept of the object. They serve to convey the emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker. Most of the qualifying words found in the dictionary can be and are used as affective epithets, e.g. dark forest, careful attention, fantastic terror.

Figurative epithets are formed on the basis of metaphors, metonymies and similes expressed by adjectives. They name a feature not inherent in the object, i.e. a feature which may be so unexpected as to strike the reader by its novelty. E.g. the smiling sun, the frowning cloud, a dream-like experience. These epithets are used for stylistic purposes to make the narration more expressive and emotional.

Epithets are mostly expressed by adjectives or qualitative adverbs (e.g. his victorious smile - he smiled victoriously), but also by nouns used either as exclamatory sentences (e.g. Hey you, piglet!) or as postpositive attributes (e.g. Richard of the Lion Heart).

3. SDs based on interrelation between nominal and contextual meanings: antonomasia in English and Ukrainian.

Antonomasia is a stylistic device based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings of the same word. One of the interacting meanings exists independently of the context, the other one is born within the context.

Depending on the character of the contextual meaning there are two types of antonomasia:

1) That based on the interaction between the nominal and contextual logical meanings.

2) That based on the interaction between the logical and contextual nominal meanings.

To the first group we shall refer those cases in which a proper noun is used for a common noun.

This type of antonomasia is usually trite for writer repeats the well-known, often-mentioned facts. Through long and consistent usage of a proper noun for a common noun the former may lose its nominal meaning altogether to acquire the function of naming a certain objects or phenomenon.

In the second type of antonomasia we observe the interaction between the logical and the contextual nominal meaning, i.e. practically any common noun can be used as a common name. It is always original. In such cases the person’s name serves his first characteristics.

But to characterize a person through his name is not the only function of antonomasia. Very often it helps to give concrete expression for abstract notions.

The stylistic effect of such antonomasia very much depends upon the very unexpectedness of a name being expressed by a word-combination.

Names-phrases are usually spelt with hyphens between their components to stress their close syntactical and semantic relations.

e.g. So, my dear Simplicity, let me give you a little respite.

4. Stylistic functions of syntactic constructions based on the reduction of the sentence pattern in English and Ukrainian.

Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices of the English language: • based on reduction of the initial sentence model: ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton;

ELLIPSIS An elliptical sentence is such a syntactic structure in which there is no subject, or predicate, or both. The main parts of elliptical sentences are omitted by the speaker intentionally in cases when they are semantically redundant. For example: - Hullo! Who are you? - The staff. Communicative functions. Ellipsis saves the speaker from needless effort, spares his time, reduces redundancy of speech. Elliptical structures may also reveal such speakers' emotions as excitement, impatience, delight, etc. As a stylistic device, ellipsis is an effective means of protagonists' portrayal.

NOMINATIVE (NOMINAL) SENTENCES A nominative sentence is a variant of one-member structures: it has neither subject nor predicate. It is called nominative or nominal because its basic (head) component is a noun or a noun-like element (gerund, numeral). For example: Morning. April. Problems. Communicative functions. A sequence of nominative sentences makes for dynamic description of events. Sets of nominative sentences are used to expressively depict the time of the action, the place of the action, the atten-dant circumstances of the action, the participants of the action.

APOSIOPESIS (BREAK-IN-THE-NARRATIVE) Like ellipsis, aposiopesis is also realized through incompleteness of sentence structure, though this incompleteness is of different structural and semantic nature: it appears when the speaker is unwilling to proceed and breaks off his narration abruptly: If you go on like this...

ASYNDETON It is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives. For example: John couldn 't have done such a silly thing, he is enough clever for that. Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins. Cocking tails and pricking whiskers,... Communicative functions. Asyndeton makes speech dynamic and ex-pressive. Sometimes it implies the speaker's haste, nervousness and impatience.

6.Stylistic functions of syntactic constructions based on the violation of the grammatically fixed word order within a sentence or a deliberate isolation of some parts of the sentence in English and Ukrainian.

 Inversion is the violation of the fixed word order within an English sentence. There are two major kinds of inversion: 1. that one which results in the change of the grammatical meaning of a syntactic struc-ture, i.e. grammatical inversion (exclamatory and interrogative sentences), and  2. that one which results in adding to a sentence an emotive and emphatic colouring, i.e. stylistic inversion, e.g. And the palm-trees I like them not (A. Christie). Inversion may be of two types: 1) complete, i.e. comprising the principal parts of the sentence, e.g. From behind me came Andrews voice (S. Chaplin); 2) partial, i.e. influencing the secondary parts of the sentence, e.g. Straight into the arms of the police they will go (A. Christie).     Separation, or syntactical split, is the splitting of a noun phrase by the attribute adjunct which is removed from the word it modifies. Stylistically, syntactical split is used to emphasize the phrase which was separated, e.g. He had never seen the truth before, about anything (R. Warren).     Detachment is a separation of a secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasizing it, e.g. Formidable and ponderous, counsel for the defence  arose (A. Christie).      Detachment is to be regarded as a special kind of inversion, when some parts of the sentence are syntactically separated from its other members with which they are grammatically and logically connected.

7. Stylistic functions of syntactic constructions based с meaning in English and Ukrainian.

A rhetorical question is asked just for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive persuasive device.

Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the questioner himself knows the answer already or an answer is not actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the audience’s attention.

Rhetorical questions, though almost needless or meaningless, seem a basic need of daily language. Some common examples of rhetorical questions from daily life are as follows.

• “Who knows?”

• “Are you stupid?”

• “Did you hear me?”

• “Ok?”

• “Why not?”

Mostly, it is easy to spot a rhetorical question because of its position in the sentence. It occurs immediately after the comment made and states the opposite of it. The idea again is to make a point more prominent. Some rhetorical question examples are as follows. Keep in mind that they are also called tag questions if used in everyday conversation.

• “It’s too hot today. Isn’t it?”

• “The actors played the roles well. Didn’t they?”

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