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1 Часть.

Accent

1)One or more syllables of a polysyllabic word have greater prominence than the others. Such syllables are said to be stressed or accented. In English any or all four factors- loudness(force), pitch

sound quality(length), sound quality may render a syllable more prominent than the others.

Ex. 'object, beautiful, sunny,

Accenteme

The second function of word accent, its position and degree, is the distinctive one. This function makes word accent a separate, prosodic phonological unit which may be called word accenteme. The number of word accentemes in a language with free word accent is determined by the number of the latter's distinctive degrees.

Ex. 'Object(n)-ob'ject(v), 'contract(n)-контракт, con'tract(v)-договариваться, 'perfect(adj)-совершенный, pe'rfect(v)-совершенствовать

Accentual nucleus

Formally the nucleus may be described as a strongly stressed syllable which is generally the last strongly accented syllable of an intonation pattern and which marks a significant change of pitch direction, that is where the pitch does distinctly up and down.

Accidence – grammatical rules about the changes in the form of words connected with different modification of their sound nature. Ex, foot-feet, have-has-had.

Accommodation

this term is often used in linguists to denote the interchanges of “vowel + consonant type”or “consonant+vowel type”, for instance some slight of nasalization of vowels preceded or followed by nasal sonorants: never, men; or labialization of consonants preceding by the vowels [o] and [y] in Russian: больно, конь, думать,лучше.

Accuracy of pronunciation

We should avoid phonological mistakes, which effect the meaning.

Ex. Are you fond of walking here?

Are you fond of working here?

And Phonetic mistakes: the vowel [I:] is too long before a fortis consonant, but the quality of the sound is not modified: seat pronounced not as [siJt] but as [si:t].

Acoustic phonetics

Studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker's mouth and the listener's ear.

Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics. The spectra of speech sounds are investigated by means of the apparatus called the sound spectrograph. Pitch as a component of intonation can be investigated by intonograph.

Adjacent sounds – sounds that follow each other.

Affricates

(Occlusive constrictive conson.)

are noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only 2 occlusive-constrictives in English [tʃ] and [dʒ] and Russian [ч'] ,[ц]. The English [dʒ] is voiced(in certain positions) and weak(lenis), and [tʃ] is voiceless and strong( fortis).

Allochrones

By the term “allochrone” is meant a particular degree of length comprised in a giving chroneme. In ordinary Southern English there two chronemes (long and short ) applicable(применимый) to vowels, but only one applicable to consonants. Ex. [ei] in grey and in great. This diphthong, like all the other English diphthongs is always said with a long chroneme, but the [ei] of grey has the full length allochrone, while the [ei] of great has a rather short one.

Allophones

Various speech realizations of phoneme are called allophones. Allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context.

Ex. the consonant [d] is in the isolated position as well as in such a sound sequence as [dot] is a lenis voiced stop articulated with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge. In the position before an interdental constrictive [θ] as in breadth it is formed with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, when [d] is followed by the post-alveolar [r] as in dry the tip of the tongue is placed behind the teeth ridge.

Allophonic transcription( or narrow transcription)

suggests special symbols including some information about articulatory activity or particular allophonic features. It provides special symbols to denote not only the phoneme as o language unit but also its allophonic modifications.

Ex. In the pronunciation of the consonant [l] it is often necessary insist upon the soft and hard varieties of it by using not only [l] but also [l](the indication of the hard variant).

Alteration of sounds

It is the sound variation in words, their derivatives and grammatical forms of words. It's perfectly obvious that sound alterations are caused by assimilation, accommodation, reduction in speech.

Ex. Alteration of consonants are mainly due to contextual assimilations: the dark [l] in spell alternates with the clear [l] in spelling. Vowel alterations are the result of reduction in unstressed positions: 'combine(n) com'bine(v).

Alveolar consonants

Or alveolars are articulated with the tip (of the tongue)against the upper teeth ridge: the English [t, d, s, z, n, l]

Alveolar point

the centre of the anterior (предшествующий) margin(край, приграничная область) of the upper alveolar arch(дуга).

Alveolar region- relating to the jaw section containing the tooth sockets: the alveolar ridge.

Alveoles (alveoli)

Alveolar- is a tip or blade of tongue against the gum just behind the upper teeth.

Apex(наивысшая точка)

Latin- for top, peak, summit

Apical

from the Latin apex (plural apices) meaning to be at the apex or tip.

Sounds made with the tongue tip are said to be apical.

Articulate

to make the movements and adjustments( регулирование) of the speech organs necessary to utter (a speech sound)

Articulation the act or process of articulating(произносить отчётливо) speech.

the adjustments and movements of speech organs involved in pronouncing a particular sound, taken as a whole.

Articulator Any vocal organ that takes part in the production of a speech sound. Such organs are of two types: those that can move, such as the tongue, lips,vocal cords,soft palate with uvula,the back wall of the pharynx,the lower jaw,the lungs (active articulators), and those that remain fixed, such as the teeth, the hard palate, the walls of the resonators. (passive articulators)

Articulatory phonetics

The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of this movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds.

Phoneme aspects

1. the phoneme is a functional unit. Function is usually understood to mean discriminatory function, that is, the role of the various components of the phonetic system of the language in distinguishing one morpheme from another, one word from another or also one utterance from another.

2. the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.

3. the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition. We may add that the phoneme is a material and objective unit as well as an abstract and generalized one at the same time.

Aspiration

articulation accompanied by an audible(слышимый) puff of breath, as in the h -sound of how, or of when (hwen), or in the release of initial stops, as in the k -sound of key.

Assimilation

It is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.

Attitudinal function

Is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for example the same sentences can be said in a different ways which might be expressed “angry”, “happy”, “grateful”, “bored” and so on. A major factor in this is the tone which is used.

Back vowels

When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced. This is the position for the English [a:], [u:], [ɔ], [o] and the Russian vowels [о, у]

Back advanced vowels

when the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but id slightly advanced and the central part of it raised towards the front part of the soft palate a back advanced vowel is pronounced. This is the position of the Engl. Vowel [ʊ]

Bicentral consonants

The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. Such consonants are called bicentral.

English fricatives [∫], [ʒ] and affricates [t∫], [dʒ]

[w] and dark [l]

Back secondary focus

When the back part of the tongue is slightly raised towards the soft palate. [w] and [l]

Bilabial consonants

Are produced when both lips are active.

They are in English: [p, b, m, w] and Russian [п, п',б, б',м, м']

Block – to prevent the air from flowing out of the mouth cavity when the soft palate is lowered and the air passes out of the nasal cavity. The air passage through the mouth cavity is blocked in the articulation of [m, n].

Breath

the air inhaled and exhaled in respiration.

Bronchi bulk

A bronchus (plural bronchi, adjective bronchial) is a passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. The bronchus branches into smaller tubes, which in turn become bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in this part of the lungs.

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