Сухарева_Теория фонетики

meets no obstruction is the mouth. The term “open” can be applied to the group of consonants as well, namely nasal sonorants, when the air passes out through the nasal cavity.

According to the manner of articulation sounds can be: Plosive (p, b, t, d, k, g)

Fricative (f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ∫, З, h, w, l, r, j) Nasal (m, n, η)

3.Articulation and coarticulation. Types of assimilation.

Speech does not consist of isolated, separate sounds. It is a flow of

connected sound sequences forming words and phrases. Speech sounds influence each other in this flow, thus becoming pronounced in a different way. These modifications of speech sounds are observed both within words and at word boundaries. Such intercourse between sounds in connected speech is termed “coarticulation” (the term was first suggested by a Spanish phonetician A. de Lacerda). Coarticulation results in assimilation, when one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound. The word "assimilation" is an example of this phenomenon. This Latin word is composed of the preposition "ad"

— to, and the adjective "similis" alike, similar, ad-similatio — assimilatio: [ds>ss] ([d] under the influence of the following [s] was changed to [s]).

There are 3 types of assimilation distinguished according to:

1.direction,

2.degree of completeness,

3.degree of stability.

Direction of Assimilation.

The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive, regressive or reciprocal (double) direction.

When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding sound, which remains unchanged, assimilation is

called progressive.

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When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one assimilation is called regressive.

Reciprocal or double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds.

Degree of Completeness.

According to its degree, assimilation can be complete and incomplete. Assimilation is called complete in the case the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. It always takes place when the two sounds differ only in

one articulatory feature.

Eg. less shy ['les' ai > 'le ai].

Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. For example, the sonorants [w, 1, r] are partly devoiced when preceded by the voiceless [p, t, k, s, f, ð] within words: sweet [swi:t], place [pleis], try [trai].

Degree of stability.

Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language have become obligatory in modern English, they may, or may not be reflected in spelling. Such changes which have taken place over a period of time within words are called historical, eg orchard (ort + yard) — ['o:tjәd>'o:t∫әd].

Besides there are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of assimilation which can be traced mainly at word boundaries, eg ten minutes ['ten 'minits > 'tem'minits]

The most difficulty for Russian learners lies in the sphere of voice assimilation, when a consonant either loses or acquires voice under the influence of a preceding or following sound. Russian learners tend to devoice voiced consonants before voiceless ones and voice voiceless consonants before voiced ones.

In English word sequences word final voiced consonants are not fully devoiced under the influence of the immediately following voiceless consonants, eg good chap ['gud 't∫ap]; big case ['big 'keis].

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Neither are the word final voiceless consonants voiced under the influence of the immediately following voiced consonants,

eg white dress [ 'wait 'dres], this book [ 'dis 'buk].

Such sequences are difficult for Russian learners, as regressive devoicing or voicing in Russian is obligatory both within words and at the word junction,

eg впятером — вдвоем, под столом — под газетой.

In Russian voicing or devoicing is mainly regressive (right to left) — the preceding consonant depends upon the following consonant, eg сделать, отдать,

сдать, идти.

In English voicing or devoicing is mostly progressive (left to right), which is not typical for Russian.

Eg. That's right Bob's gone out

Also, the sonorants [m, n, 1, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k, f, ð].

Other assimilative changes are:

Labialization

Nasalization

Loss of plosion (or nasal or lateral plosion)

Palatalization

4. Articulatory basis of a language. Major differences between English and Russian articulatory bases.

Key words: articulatory settings, interference, automated skills, subconscious acquisition, conscious control

On the whole, the speech apparatus is the same with all humans. However, not all of its potential is applied by speakers of one language. Every language

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applies certain manner of articulation, i.e. certain positions and movements of speech organs typical for the speakers of this language and tightly connected with its phonetic system. Here we can speak about the articulatory basis of a language, i.e. a complex of positions and movements of speech organs characteristic of this language. The articulatory basis of a language is comprised by the following parameters:

(1)Activity

(2)Localization

(3)Typical movements of speech organs

The articulatory bases of different languages vary according to the named parameters. Thus, the activity of the Russian articulatory basis is described as rather low, whereas the English articulation is characterized by quite a high degree of force. The localization characteristics of the Russian articulatory basis are the following:

1.The tip of the tongue is positioned against the lower teeth.

2.The middle part of the tongue is a little raised and advanced forward.

3.The lips are a bit protruded.

The typical movements of the speech organs are:

1.The tongue moves forward towards the lower teeth, touching them with the tip (position 1).

2.The tongue-tip moves upward towards the hard palate (position 2).

3.Light, smooth movements: from position 1 to the vocalic position (dental consonants+ front vowels); from position 2 to the vocalic position (palatal consonants+ front vowels).

The typical features of the English articulatory basis are the following:

Activity	Localization	Typical movements
energetic	The tip of the tongue is positioned against the lower	The tongue moves
articulation	alveoli;	energetically from the
	The tongue tends to be back-retracted;	lower to the upper
	The lips are spread and pressed against the upper teeth.	alveoli and back.

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According to Russian phoneticians V. V. Kuleshov and А. B. Mishin, the articulatory basis is formed as a reaction to frequently repeated movements of speech organs, which are kept in a position most convenient for performing frequent articulatory movements correctly and most economically. A foreign accent is usually thought to be the result of incorrect pronunciation of certain sounds, but in fact it is due to the wrong articulatory settings of the speaker. It is a bitter reality that a learner who has not acquired the articulatory basis of the target language is bound to speak with an accent. Thus, the process of forming an articulatory basis should be conscious. It is crucial for learners to stop using the pronunciation settings typical of their native language. For instance, they might have to control the force of articulation and “adjust” it to the target language. This consciousness would help better acquisition of foreign articulatory skills.

Stop and think

Now try the following thing: 1. close your mouth; 2. set your organs of speech in a position typical for the English articulatory basis. 3. Are you comfortable? What conclusion can you make?

5.Problems of teaching pronunciation.

The articulatory basis of a language together with its prosody (rhythm

and intonation) comprises the phonetic basis of a language. Thus, “good” pronunciation presupposes the right use of both articulatory and prosodic settings. This appears to be quite a difficult task, as the target language confronts with the mother tongue. The native sound system (articulatory and settings) is acquired in early childhood subconsciously, and thus the skills are automated. The degree of automation is very high, whereas the possibility of conscious control is extremely low. Such automation of articulatory and prosodic skills results in a foreign accent as foreign sounds are being pronounced in the native way. This phenomenon is defined as native language interference. The “negative” influence of the native

Кулешов В. В., Мишин А. Б. Сопоставление артикуляционных баз английского и русского языков и фонетическая интерференция.

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language manifests itself not only in articulating sounds, but also in their perception. The differences between sounds which do not exist (are not meaningful) in the native language (e.g. long/short vowels in Russian) are not perceived by the learners unless specially worked through. The sound characteristics which do not distinguish meaning remain “unheard” by learners. According to Polivanov (1968), Shcherba (1947) and Reformatsky (1970), the sounds of a foreign language are always perceived through the “lens” of the native phonetic system.

It won’t be an exaggeration to say that people can only hear those sounds which they are able to reproduce in speech. (F. Hausler, 1961.)

Thus, teaching pronunciation appears to be quite a problem. The question is how to teach students a new phonetic basis (the one of the TL). Here are a few basic strategies applied in teaching pronunciation today:

-imitation;

-contrasting the SL and TL positions of speech organs;

-familiarizing learners with the new phonetic basis (building the phonetic system of the TL) by focusing on the crucial differences between the systems and contrasting the distinctive features of sounds, rhythm and intonation of the two systems.

Stop and think!

Consider the possible advantages and disadvantages of the 3 methods of teaching pronunciation.

Stop and check! Discussion and practice: Coarticulation. Articulatory basis of a language.

Questions

1.Describe the mechanism of sound production.

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2.How are sounds classified according to their articulation?

3.What is meant by the terms “co-articulation” and “assimilation”?

4.Think of three examples illustrating different degrees of assimilation. What is the difference between progressive and regressive assimilations?

5.Compare and contrast Russian and English ABs.

6.Why do you think the acquisition of a new AB is a great problem? How would you explain Shcherba’s statement that “a foreign language is perceived through the lens of the native language”?

Practical tasks

1.What kind of assimilation affects the alveolar articulation of the [t, d, n] and

[1] when they are followed by [θ] or [ð]?

2.How is the [1] pronounced in the word health?

3.Underline the consonants affected by assimilation in the words white, although, breadth. Define the type of assimilation.

4.What similar assimilative changes do the [t, d, n, 1, s, z] undergo when they are used before [θ] or [ð]?

5.How are [n] and [l] pronounced when preceded by[θ] or [ð]?

6.What consonant in the sentence "Call the boy" is affected by regressive assimilation?

7.Read the words train, trifle. Say what consonant is assimilated in them and what degree of assimilation it is.

8.How is [r] pronounced within the word through?

9.How is [d] pronounced within the words drop, drug? Say what degree of assimilation it is.

10.What articulatory features of the sonorant [1] within the word flower are affected by assimilation?

11.Pronounce the words train, quarter, twilight and swallow and say what type of assimilation takes place in them.

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12.Read the following sets of words. Concentrate on how the sonorant [w] is pronounced. Tell what type of assimilation it is. (1) win — twin , (2) wept — swept, (3) white — quite.

13.What kind of assimilation do you come across in the cluster [tw] in the word twilight"? In what other clusters do we come across the same type of assimilation?

14.Suppose a Russian-speaking learner of English pronounces the word medicine as ['metsin] and blackboard as ['blaegbo:d]. What is their mistake?

15.Analyze the words handkerchief and gooseberry from the point of view of assimilations in them and state: (1) the degree of assimilation; (2) the direction of assimilation.

16.How does the sonorant [n] influence the plosive [t] in the word kitten?

17.Say what happens to English plosives when they are used before another plosive or an affricate? Think of some examples.

18.Comment on the pronunciation of the [tl] and [dl] clusters in the following words: kettle, battle, dental, muddle, hardly.

Phonetic Modifications of Sounds in Speech. Ways of linking words.

1.Modifications of Consonants.

/consonant/ + /consonant/ Assimilation or Elision

/consonant/ + /vowel/ Accommodation

/consonant/ + /consonant/ Exercise 1.

Study these assimilation patterns and contribute your own examples.

1.The plosives /p, b, t, d, k, g/ + /n/ or /m/ = nasal explosion. e.g. kitten, button, shouldn’t

2.The plosives /p, b, t, d, k, g/ + /l/ = lateral explosion.

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e.g. dental, kettle, pebble

3./t/ + /j/ = /t /, e.g. Is that yours?

4./d/ + /j/ = /d3/, e.g. Did you do it?

5./s/ + /j/ = / /, e.g. issue

6./z/ + /j/ = /3/, e.g. Does your mother know?

7./s, z/ + / / = / /, e.g. horseshoe, his shirt

Consonant clusters at the beginning of words.

English words can start with a vowel, or one, two or three consonant sounds. Cf.: am – ram – cram – scram

Exercise 2.

Study the tables and pronounce the example words. What assimilative changes can you notice within the initial clusters? What type of assimilation turns to be the most frequent one?

a) Here are the possible two-consonant clusters at the start of English words:

/p/

/t/

/k/

/b/

/d/

/g/

/m/

/n/

/f/

/v/

/ /

/ /

/h/

+ /l/

play

x

class

black

x

glass

x

x

fly

x

x

x

x

+ /r/

pray

trip

crime

brown

drop

grow

x

x

fry

x

three

shrink

x

+/w/

x

twins

queen

x

dwell

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

+ /j/

pure

tube

queue

beauty

due

x

music

news

few

view

x

x

huge

In addition, the following two-consonant clusters are possible with /s/:

/S/ + /f/, /l/, /w/, /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/

E.g. sphere, slow, swim, spot, star, sky, smile, snow

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b) Here are the possible three-consonant clusters at the start of English words:

	/sp/	/st/	/sk/
+ /l/	splash	x	x
+ /r/	spray	stray	scream
+/w/	x	x	squeak
+ /j/	x	stew	skewer

Exercise 3.

Try building words by adding consonant sounds. Start with a vowel sound, and then add one consonant sound at a time before or after the vowel, in any order, to build new words. (Note: (i) a consonant sound may consist of more than one letter; (ii) don't add any new vowel sounds.) Then say aloud the words you have written.

For example:

/ei/: ache =>lake =>flake => flakes (2 consonants before the vowel and 2 after) /ai/: rye =>rife =>rifle =>trifle =>trifles (2 before and 3 after)

/i:/: sea =>seem =>scheme =>scream =>screamed (3 before and 2 after)

Consonant clusters at the end of words.

There are many more consonant sounds possible at the end of English words than at the beginning (up to four!).

Exercise 4.

How many final consonant sounds - 1, 2, 3 or 4 - do the words in the box have when they are spoken slowly and carefully? Write the words in the appropriate row.

accents	against	aspects	axe	catch	contexts	diamonds ears earth
grasped	laughed	ledge	next	risked	sculpts	stamps tempts
touched	attempts

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