Lesson 2

Lesson 2: Coming to Terms: A Philosophical Lexicon, Part I

Introduction

 

Like most academic disciplines, philosophy has developed an extensive number of concepts and terms. A proper understanding of philosophy requires at least a basic familiarity with some of the most commonly-used words and phrases in the philosophical lexicon. The following section provides a glossary of terms.

 

Glossary

a priori/a posteriori: Important epistemological terms, a priori refers to what can be known based on reason alone, completely separate from experience, and aposteriori refers to that which can be known solely on the basis of experience.

Abstract: That which exists only in the mind. It is the opposite of objective.

Absurd: In logic, this refers to a contradiction, such as "triangular circle".

Ad hominem: From the Latin meaning "to the man", logical arguments that are based on personal reasons more than rational ones (Geisler, 1980).

Ad infinitum: Something that goes on forever and without end. Literally, "to infinity".

Agnosticism: The philosophical position that holds that mankind cannot or does not know whether or not God, or sometimes even reality, exists.

Atheism: The belief that no God or deity exists either within or outside the physical universe.

Being: In short, this refers to who or what exists. Being is what is real (Geisler, 1980).

Causality/Cause and effect: This indicates a direct relationship between two events. The first is called the "cause" and the second the "effect", which can be said to transpire directly from the first event.

Conclusion: In logic, the deductive result of two or more premises.

Deism: "The view that God exists but takes no interest in human affairs. He wound up the world like a clock, and then left it to run itself" (Pojman, 2000).

Determinism: The philosophical theory that holds every event and state of affairs in the physical universe (most particularly, the world), including human actions, are caused (Pojman, 2000). There are two types: hard and soft determinism. The former believes that no one is responsible for their actions since everything is determined and the latter says creatures can be held accountable if they acted voluntarily (Pojman, 2000).

Dialectical: In modern philosophy, a process by which conflict between a thesis (given) and antithesis (opposite of the given) brings about a new position that combines the two (synthesis).

Dualism: In a strict metaphysical sense, this refers to the belief that universe is comprised of two and only two fundamental substances, especially mind and matter. Other forms of dualism exist, as well, including moral dualism, cosmological dualism, etc., but they should not be confused with the use of the term in metaphysics.

Efficient cause: Another term for the word "cause", i.e., the action that produces a given effect. For example, walking into the coffee table was the efficient cause of John's shin bruise.

Empirical verifiability: Something can be said to be empirically verifiable if "…It can, at least in principle, be shown to be true on the basis of observation" (Pojman, 2000).

Empiricism: "A view about the nature of knowledge, namely that all human knowledge comes from sensory experience. It also denies that reason alone, without experience, can be a source of knowledge" (Pojman, 2000).

Epistemology: A branch of philosophy, often closely associated with metaphysics, which concerns itself with the theory of knowledge: how things come to be known, what can be known, what is known, etc. Basically, it is the study of the nature and scope of knowledge.

Essence: "Qualities or attributes of a thing which are necessary; its nature" (Geisler, 1980). In other words, whatever makes a thing what it is.

Ex nihilo: This Latin phrase, meaning "from nothing" refers to the Judeo-Christian doctrine that God created all of the known universe out of nothing.

Existence: See being.

Fallacy: In the sub-discipline of logic, an error in reference, relationship, or conclusion (Geisler, 1980).

Fideism: "…an epistemological theory which maintains that faith is independent of reason, or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths … The word fideism comes from fides, the Latin word for faith, and literally means ‘faith-ism'" (Free Dictionary, 2011).

Finite: Something characterized by boundaries or limits--the opposite of infinite.

First principle: A self-evident assumption that requires no further rational or evidential proof--an axiom or proposition (Geisler, 1980).

Forms: A prominent feature of early Greek philosophy, the concept of forms referred to the things we see and experience every day, such as cows, homes, or even ideas. To Plato, the concept of forms was elevated to perfection. He claimed that what we see aren't the actual things themselves, but earthly representations of the true Forms (always capitalized), which exist beyond the physical universe.

Foundationalism: An epistemological position that holds all knowledge and beliefs are based on older, more self-evident beliefs (sometimes called first principles). In short, "…foundationalism is a view about the proper architecture of one's knowledge or justified beliefs" (IEP, 2011).

Free will: The belief that humans are able to choose a specific course of action from a variety of potential courses of action. That is, we choose our own paths in life. It is the philosophical opposite to determinism.

Hedonism: An ethical school of thought that teaches a pleasure is the greatest moral good. Thus, those people who have experienced more pleasure than pain in their lives are considered to have lived more ethically than those who have suffered more.

Humanism: This is a major cosmological or metaphysical position that posits humankind (or "man") is the highest measure of value in the universe (Geisler, 1980).

Hylomorphism: A theoretical belief that matter is made up of both substance and form. Basically, a combining of the two parts of classical dualism, mind and matter.

Idealism: In Western philosophy, this refers to belief that true reality exists in a perfect, otherworldly place, in a perfect or idealized form.

Immortality: The belief that man will live forever.

Infinite: The opposite of finite--without limits.

Inherence: The belief that matter itself is comprised of some proportion of each of the four basic elements.

Logical positivism: A school of thought that rejects metaphysics and theology in favor of empirical verification. Logical positivism is often closely tied tohumanism and/or materialism.