Дроздова.English Grammar

APPENDIX 7

AMERICAN ENGLISH

There are a few grammatical differences between British and American English:

1.In American English thepastsimple is often used to give newinformation or to announce a recent happening:

□I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?

The past simple is used with just and already:

□I’m not hungry. I just had lunch.

□ “Don’t forget to post the letter.” - “I already posted it”.

Americans use the past simple with yet:

□I didn’t tell them about the accident yet.

2.InAmerican English the forms I have/l don’t have/do you have? are more usual than

I’ve got/l haven’t got/have you got?:

□We have a new car.

□Do you have any change?

3.These verbs (burn, learn, etc.) are normally regular inAmerican English: burned, learned, etc.

4.The past participle of get is gotten in American English:

□Your English has gotten much better since I last saw you.

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APPENDIX 8

LIST OF GRAMMAR TERMS AND KEY WORDS

Adjective

Adverb of manner

Adverbial clause of cause Adverbial clause of time Adverbial modifier of place Adverbial modifier of time Affirmative

Appendix Appropriate Aspect Attributive clause Auxiliary verb

Blanks

Bold type

Borrow

Brackets

Case

Class noun

Collective noun Colloquial Common noun Comparative Compare Complete Completed action Compound Condition

Conditional sentence Conjunction Connecting adverb Consequence Consonant

Correct

Corresponding

Countable noun

Customary action

прилагательное наречие образа действия (отвечающее на вопрос

как? каким образом?)

придаточное предложение причины придаточное предложение времени обстоятельство места обстоятельство времени утвердительная форма приложение соответствующий вид

определительное придаточное предложение вспомогательный глагол

пустые места, пробелы жирный шрифт заимствовать скобки

падеж имя существительное, обозначающее отдельный предмет

имя существительное собирательное разговорный нарицательное имя существительное сравнительный сравнивать закончить, завершить

завершенное действие составное слово условие условное предложение союз

наречие, служащее для соединения следствие согласная, ~ ый

1)правильный, соответствующий

2)исправить, поправить

соответствующий исчисляемое существительное обычное действие

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Defining	определительный
Degree	мера, степень
Degrees of comparison	степени сравнения
Demonstrative	указательный
Denote	обозначать
Derivative	производный
Direct speech	прямая речь
Ending	окончание
Example	пример
Exercise	упражнение
Express	выражать
Expression	выражение, словосочетание
Extend	продолжить
Feminine	женский род
Fiction	художественная литература
Formation	образование
Future	будущий, будущее время
General question	общий вопрос
General truth	истина (нечто постоянное и неизменное)
Habitual	привычный
Imply	подразумевать
Indefinite	неопределенный
Indirect speech	косвенная речь
Insert	вставить
Italic type	курсивный шрифт
Interrogative	вопросительный
Intransitive verb	непереходный глагол
Introduce	вводить
Inversion	инверсия, обратный порядок слов в предложении
Irregular verb	неправильный глагол
Join	соединить, объединить
Limited	ограниченный
List	список
Masculine	мужской род
Meaning	значение

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Measure	мера
Mind	обратить внимание
Missing	недостающий
Negative	отрицательный
Negative sentence	отрицательное предложение
Nominative case	падеж, соответствующий именительному
Noun	существительное
Number	число
Object clause	дополнительное придаточное предложение
Objective pronouns	местоимения в объектном (косвенном) падеже
Observe	соблюдать
Omit	пропускать, опускать
Opinion	мнение, суждение
Order	приказ
Particle	частица
Passive voice	страдательный залог
Past	прошедший (о времени)
Pattern	модель
Peculiarity	особенность
Permanent action	постоянное действие (факт)
Person (1st, 2nd, 3d)	лицо (1-ое, 2-ое, 3-е)
Personal	личный
Plural	множественное число
Positive sentence	утвердительное предложение
Possessive	притяжательный
Posterior	последующий
Precede	предшествовать
Prefix	приставка
Preposition	предлог
Prepositional object	предложное дополнение
Present	настоящее время
Previous	предыдущий
Principal clause	главное предложение
Prior	предшествующий
Proceed	продолжать
Productive	продуктивный
Pronoun	местоимение
Proper noun	собственное имя существительное
Quantity	количество
Question	вопрос

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Real condition	реальное условие
Reciprocal	взаимный
Reflexive	возвратный
Relations	(взаимо-) отношения
Render	передавать
Repeated action	повторяющееся действие
Replace	заменить
Reported speech	косвенная речь
Request	просьба
Required	требуемый
Reword	перефразировать
Right	правильно
Rule	правило
Sequence of tenses	согласование времен
Set expression	устойчивое словосочетание
Simultaneous	одновременный
Singular	единственное число
Special question	специальный вопрос
State	1. состояние
Statement	2. утверждать, гласить
	утверждение
Stem	корень
Subject	подлежащее
Subordinate clause	придаточное предложение
Substitute	заменить
Succession of actions	последовательность действий
Superlative	превосходный
Syllable	слог
Temporary action	периодическое, временное действие
Tense	время (глагола)
Uncountable noun	неисчисляемое существительное
Unproductive	непродуктивный
Unreal condition	нереальное условие
Viewpoint adverb	наречие, выражающее точку зрения
Vowel	гласная, ~ ый
“When / if” clause	придаточное предложение времени и условия
Wish	желание, пожелание
Wrong	неправильно
Zero	нулевой

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APPENDIX 9

PUNCTUATION

. FULL STOP (US = PERIOD)

Used to mark the end of a sentence:

Edward walked brisklyinto the hotel. The receptionist looked at him coldly. Also r~y Letters and Abbreviations below.

? QUESTION MARK

1. Used at the end of a direct question:

Who was the first to arrive?

(Note. It is not used at the end of an indirect question: He asked who had been the first toarrive.)

2. Used in parentheses to express doubt:

He was born in 1550 (?) and died in 1613.

!EXCLAMATION MARK (US ALSO EXCLAMATION POINT)

Used at the end of a sentence or remark expressing a high degree of anger, amazement or other strong emotion:

‘What a wonderful surprise !’ she cried.

Get out of here and never come back!

(Note. Beware of over-using exclamation marks, or including them where the emotion is only mild.)

,COMMA

1.Used to separate the items in lists of words, phrases or clauses: Red, pink, yellow and white roses filled the huge vases.

If you take your time, stay calm, concentrate and think ahead, you’ll pass your driving test.

2.Sometimes used after a subordinate adverbial clause or after a phrase which comes before the main clause. It is essential after longer clauses and phrases, and to avoid ambiguity:

When the sun is shining brightly above, the world seems a happier place.

In the summer of 1984, many trees died.

3.Used after a non-finite or verbless clause, at the beginning of a sentence: To get there on time, she left half an hour early.

Happy and contented, the cat fell asleep.

4.Used to separate an introductory ortransitionalword or phrase (e.g. therefore, however, by the way,for instance) from the rest of the sentence:

Yes, it certainly had been an eventful day. In fact, I don’t even know her name.

Driving on icy roads can be dangerous and one should, therefore, be very careful.

5.Used before and after any element (e.g. a dependent clause, a comment) which interrupts the sentence:

The fire, although it had been burning for several hours, was still blazing fiercely.

You should, indeed you must, report the matter to the police.

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6.Used before and after a non-defining relative clause, or a phrase in apposition, which gives more information about the noun itfollows:

The Pennine Hills, which have been a favourite with hikers for many years, are situated between Lancashire and Yorkshire.

Queen Elizabeth II, a very popular monarch, celebrated her Silver Jubilee in

1977.

(Note. No commas are used around a relative clause that defines the noun itfollows:

The hills thatseparate Lancashire from Yorkshire are called the Pennines.)

7. Sometimes used to separate main clauses linked by a conjunction (e.g. and, as. but, for, or), especially when the first clause is long:

We had been looking forward to meeting Sarah's husband, but discovered thathe was not as pleasant as we had hoped.

Also Conversation and Letters below.

:COLON

1. (Formal) Used after a main clause where the following statement illustrates or explains the content of that clause. It may be replaced by a semicolon or a full stop:

The garden had been neglected fora long time: it was overgrown and full of weeds.

2.Used before a long list, and often introduced by phrases such as: such as: forexample: for instance: in the following examples: as follows:

Your first aid kit should include the following items: cotton wool, lint, antiseptic lotion, sticking plaster, bandages and safetypins.

Also Letters and Quotations below.

;SEMICOLON

1.(Formal) Used to separate main clauses, not (usually) joined by a conjunction, which are considered so closely connected as to belong to one sentence:

The sun was setting now; the shadows were long.

He had neverbeen to Russia before; however, it had always been one ofhis life­ longambitions.

2.Used instead of a comma to separate from each other parts of a sentence that are already separated by commas:

There are two facts to consider: first, the weather; second, the expence.

-DASH

1.(Colloq.) Used instead of a colon or a semicolon to make the writing more vivid or dramatic:

Sirens blared, men shouted, andpeople crowded in to witness the scene - itwas chaos.

So you’ve been lying to me for years and years - how can I ever trust you again?

2.(Colloq.) Used singly or in pairs to separate extra information, an afterthought or a comment, in a vivid or dramatic way, from the rest of the sentence:

Schooldays are the happiest days of our lives - or so we are told.

Schooldays - or so we are told - are the happiest days of our lives.

(Note. In more formal usage, parentheses or commas replace dashes.)

Also Conversation below.

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() PARENTHESES (GB ALSO BRACKETS)

1.Used to separate extra information, an afterthought or a comment from the rest of the sentence:

Schooldays (so we are told) are the happiest days of our lives. He said he'd never seen the sea before (but Ithink he wasjoking).

2.Used to enclose cross-references:

The abacus (see the picture on page 1) is used for teaching numbers to children.

”QUOTATION MARKS (GB ALSO INVERTED COMMAS)

(Note. In GB usage they are usually single: ‘Fire!’ In US usage they are usually double:

“Fire!" )

Used around a slang or technical term when it is in a context in which it is not usually found, or around a word to which the writer wishes to draw particular attention:

Next, the clay pot had to be ‘fired’.

He called himselfa ‘gentleman’ but you would never have thought so from the way he behaved.

Also Conversation and Quotations below.

-HYPHEN

(Note. It must not be confused with the dash, which separates parts of a sentence. The hyphen is half the length of the dash.)

1.Sometimes used to form a compound word from two other words: hard-hearted; radio-telescope; fork-lift truck.

2.Used to form a compound word from a prefix and a proper name: pre-Raphaelite; pro-Soviet; anti-Nazi.

3.Used to form a compound word from two other words which are separated by a preposition:

mother-in-law; mother-to-be; mother-of-pearl; out-of-date.

4.(Esp GB) Sometimes used to separate a prefix ending in avowel from aword beginning with that same vowel:

co-ordination; re-elect; pre-eminent

’APOSTROPHE

1.Used with ‘s’ to indicate the possessive: Singular noun: the dog’s [dogz] bone.

Singular noun ending in ‘s’: theprincess’s [prin'sesiz] smile.

Singular proper noun ending in ‘s’ (two possible forms): King Charles’s ['tja:lziz] crown,- King Charles’ ['tja:lziz] crown.

Plural noun: students’ ['stju-.dsnts] books. Irregular plural: men’s [menz]jackets.

2.Used in a contracted form to indicate the omission of letters or figures:

I’m (= I am); he’s (= he is/has); they’d (=they would/had). In ’87 (= 1987).

3.Used with ‘s’ to form the plural of a letter, a figure or an abbreviation, when these are used as proper words. In modern usage it is often omitted after a figure or a capital letter:

In the 1960’s or in the 1960s. MP’s or MPs. He can’t pronounce his r’s.

4.Used with ‘s’ to form the plural of aword (e.g. a preposition or a conjunction) thatdoes not usually have a plural:

No if’s or but’s - just do as Isay.

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ABBREVIATIONS

1.A full stop may end an abbreviation or a person’s initials, although this is becoming less common, especially in GB usage:

Mr. R. S. H. Smith or Mr R S H Smith.

2.When the abbreviation consists of capitals, it is common GB usage to omit the full stops:

UN, WHO, BCC.

3.The omission of full stops in a lower case abbreviation is less common:

i.e., p.m., e.g., or ie, pm, eg.

4.Ifthe abbreviation includes the last letter ofthe word, it is usual in GB usage to omit the full stop:

Mr, Dr, St, Rd.

5.To form the plural of capital letter abbreviations, add a lower case’s or s:

MP’s or MPs, TV’s or TVs.

CONVERSATION

1.A new indented paragraph is begun with §ach new speaker.

2.Quotation marks enclose all words and punctuation in direct speech:

‘What on earth did you do that for?' he asked.

3.Introductory words (e.g. he said, she cried, they answered) are separated from the actual words spoken by commas if no other punctuation mark (e.g. question mark,

exclamation mark) is used:

John said, ‘That’s all I know.’ ‘That’s all I know’, said John. ‘That’, said John, ‘is all I know’.

‘Why?’ asked John.

4.A comma separates a question tag from the rest of the sentence:

‘You knew he’d come, didn’t you?’

5.A mild interjection orthe direct use of a name is separated from the rest ofthe sentence by a comma:

Oh, so that’s what he wanted. (Cf ‘Oh no! I don’t believe you!’)

‘Weil, Peter, I did my best. ’ (Ct ‘Peter! Look out!’)

6.Hesitant or interrupted speech can be indicated by dashes:

‘Can I - 1mean, would you mind if I came too?'

‘You’ll find it in - ’ were his dying words.

7.Speech within speech is shown by (GB usage) double quotation marks inside single marks, or (US usage) single quotation markswithin double marks:

‘When thejudge said, “Not guilty, ” I could have hugged him. ’ (GB) “When thejudge said, ‘Not guilty, ’ I could have hugged him. ” (US)

LETTERS

1.A business letter is set out as shown below. The punctuation marks are optional. The address of the person who is writing the letter is in the top right-hand corner; the address of the person to whom the letter is being written is in the top left-hand corner, but below the address of the sender:

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3 Willow Street,

Frambleton,

Suffolk.

SF5 9PK.

6th June, 1984.

Mr D. B. Taylor.

Metalwork Ltd,

Booth Street,

Ormton,

Lancashire.

LC14 3JQ.

Dear Mr Taylor,

Thank you for...

Yours faithfully/sincerely/ (US) truly,

[signature]

Mary Burton.

2. In US usage, a colon is substituted for the comma in the salutation, except informally:

Dear Ms Burton: but Dear Mary.

3.Inan informal letter, onlythe address ofthe sender is necessary, the optional punctuation is more likelyto be omitted, and Yours sincerely, etc. is replaced by a more friendly or personal phrase, e.g. Yours, Yours affectionately, With best/warm wishes, Withlove.

QUOTATIONS

1.The quotation is separated from its introduction by a colon and is enclosed byquotation marks:

It was Disraeli who said: ‘Little things affect little minds. ’

2. Ifa word or phrase is omitted from the quotation, this is indicated bya rowofthree dots

(...):

‘The condition of man ... is a condition of war of everyone against everyone. ’

(Thomas Hobbes) Also Conversation above.