Index

A			Alfred the Great, king of	Anglo-French 107–9, 112
ablaut process 86, 122			England	Anglo-Norman, use of term
Aboriginal languages 15, 176			Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 74	138n1
Académie Française 183, 184			patronage of writing and	Anglo-Norman Dictionary 125
accusative case			translation 74–75, 100	Anglo-Saxon see Old English
in ME pronouns 118, 119			revival of education 74	(OE)
in OE 81			victory over Guthrum 72	Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 74,
acronyms 12–13			Algeo, J. 11–12, 21, 23, 24,	105, 107, 112
Act of Union (1707) 178			28, 33, 73, 76, 77, 81, 82,	Anglo-Saxon gender
‘Adamic’ language, search for			84, 87, 88, 90, 101, 116,	gender attribution, and
44, 59			117, 119, 125, 150, 153,	gender behaviours 92, 95
adaptation, of loanwords			155, 156	gender studies 92–93, 95
and adoption	17–19		Alisoun (ME lyric) 137	‘otherness’, perception of
and calquing	18		alliterative patterns, in OE	95
to current and productive			poetry 73, 90	see also Beowulf example;
systems of speakers			Alsagoff, L. 193, 194	gender; gender marking
79–80, 87			amelioration 22–23	Anglo-Saxon literature
and re-analysis 18			American English	lives of the saints 100
and word class patterns		10,	[A] pronunciation 155	poetry 73–74
18–19			Anglo-American culture,	prose writings 74–75
adjectives			impact of 174	Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records
in EModE 157			like, as discourse marker	74
in ME 118–21			33–34	Anglo-Saxons 67, 70–71
in OE 83–84			Northern California Vowel	aphaeresis 7
adoption, of loanwords			Shift 8–9	apocope 7
17–19			Southern Vowel Shift 7–8	Arabic 18, 163, 200
affixation			American language families	Armenian 30
French loanwords 128			60	Arte of Thetorique, The
and grammaticalization		33	Amerind classification 60, 61	(Wilson) 165
lexical change 11–12			analogical levelling	Aryan race	44–45, 65n4
in OE vocabulary 90			in ME 117, 118–19, 120,	see also Indo-European
and productivity 36			121–22, 131	Ascham, Robert 146
African language families		59	in OE 27	Asher, R.E.	64
‘African syntax’	133		Ancrene Wisse 122	Ashton, T.	166
Afro-Asiatic language family			Andaman Islands 59	assimilation	6
60			Andean Quechua family 64	Æthelred the Unready, king
agglutinating languages 28,			Angles 71	of England 72, 103
29, 30			see also Anglo-Saxons	Augustine, St 71, 74
Alchemist (Johnson) 157			Anglian dialect 75	Australian German 18

216 The History of English
Australian language families	gender ambiguity 97–99			Bulloker, William 150, 166
59	gender behaviours, of			Burgess, Gellet 14
Authorized Version, of Bible	women 96–97			Burnley, J.D. 70, 100, 113,
142	masculinity and femininity,			118
auxiliary verb do 30, 160–61	constructions of 93, 96			Burrow, J.A. 118, 119, 121,
Aymara language family 64	Bible in English, emergence of			122, 124, 137
	140–42
B	Bibliotheca Historica (trans			C
Baba Malay 192	Skelton) 118			Cable, A. 2, 5, 10, 16, 48, 54,
back-formation 13, 27–28	Bickerton, D. 133			58, 64, 68, 70, 71, 73,
Bailey, C-J. 82, 92, 127,	Black, P. 63			75, 101n5, 106, 108,
128–36	Black Death 111, 140–41			109, 110, 125, 127, 147,
Bajan see Barbadian English	Black English	7		167, 184, 186, 187,
Bao, Z.M. 204n9	blending 12			204n8
Barbadian English	boke named the Gouernour, The			Cameron, D. 93–94, 178,
distinctive creole structural	(Elyot) 166			203, 204
properties, assumption of	Bokhorst-Heng, W. 191, 195,			Campbell, G. 186
170	198			Canterbury Tales (Chaucer)
and English, structural	Book of Common Prayer 142			112
similarities 171–72	borrowing process			Cantonese 41, 192, 194
later creole use,	adaptation 10, 18–19			Carroll, Lewis 14
development from non-	adoption 17–19			Cassidy, F.G. 169
creole to 170–71	and bilingualism 14, 15–16			Catherine of Aragon 142
superstratal/substratal	cultural borrowings 15–17			Catholic Church
languages 169, 170	grammatical adaptation		18	decline of 140–41
and SWDE usages 171–72	minority ethnic groups		16	papal authority, rejection of
textual material, reliability	place names, from			139
of 169	indigenous languages		15	Catholic Homilies (Ælfric) 79
Barbados, social history of	and ‘projected gain’ 15, 17			Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. 56, 60,
167–68	‘borrowing where necessary’			64
Barber, C. 5, 113, 116, 127,	principle (EModE)			Cawdry, R. 166
144, 173	164–65			Caxton, William 141, 145,
Basque 28, 31, 57, 101n5	Boudicca 69			149
Battle of Bouvines (1214)	Boxhorn, M. 64n3			Celtic 15, 68, 91, 176
138n3	Bradley, S.A.J.	74		Central French 110
Baugh, T. 2, 5, 10, 16, 48, 54,	Braithwaite, E.	173n1		loanwords from 124–25
58, 64, 68, 70, 71, 73, 75,	brand-names 13, 36			minor creolization stage
101n5, 106, 108, 109,	Breton 68			129
110, 125, 127, 147, 167,	Bright, W. 64			Norman/Central double
184, 186, 187, 204n8	British Grammar, The			borrowings 125–27
Bazaar Malay 191	(Buchanan) 187			Chadic 60
be (OE beon) 88	broadcasting, effect of 188,			Chance, J. 93, 97, 98
Bede 67, 70, 71, 74	201–2			Chancery documents 149
Beowulf example (Anglo-	Brown, R. 158			Charles the Simple, king of
Saxon gender)	Brugmann, K. 48			France 104
abstract qualities, feminine	Brythonic-speaking Celts		68,	Chaucer 112, 132, 136
personifications of	69, 70			‘Chaucerian poets’, of
99–100	Buchanan, James 1762 187			Scottish court 113
Beowulf story 96	Bucholz, M. 37n5			Chaudenson, R. 132, 133–34,
blood-feud theme 96	Buchstaller, I.	38n11		135, 170, 173n6

					Index 217
Cheke, John 149, 164			comparative reconstruction		w, loss of in sw and tw
Chesterfield, Earl of	186		(method)		115
Chinese 200			cognate database, validity		consonants (OE) 76–78
isolating languages	28, 29		of 61		Coote, E. 166
loanwords in CSE 16, 193			comparative method 44,		copiousness 162
Chronycles, The (Froissart			45, 65n5		Cornish 68
Bouchier) 162			generalizability, lack of 62		correctness see prescriptive
Claiborne, R. 1, 53, 178			as heuristic method	62	tradition; standardization
clipping 12			and Indo-European	46–52	Cosmology (Aelfirc) 100
Cnut, king of England		72,	linguistic affiliations,		Coupland, N. 37n1
103, 104			determining 61–62		Cranmer, Archbishop 142
Cockeram’s dictionary		165	and Nostratic family	59	creolization
code-switching 138n2			quantitative methods,		Central French 129
Cohen, J.J. 94, 95, 99			development of 62–64		definition of 128, 132
Cohn, C. 24			reconstructions, validity of		and ‘linguistic instability
Collectanea (Pseudo-Bede) 99,			49–50		129–30
100			stable lexis, assumption of		morphological simplicity,
Colloquial Singapore English			61		assumption of 134–35
(CSE)			and subjectivity 60–61		and ‘nation language’
adverbials, instead of verb			and time-depth issue 60–61		concept 173n1
inflections 194			compounding		as purely linguistic process
count and non-count nouns			EModE 164		132–33
194			lexical change 10–11		and social context 135
and English-medium			OE 11, 90		structural features of
schools 189–92			Consolation of Philosophy		133–34, 135
loanwords in 16–17			(Boethius) 100		superstratal/substratal
and local identify	198		consonants (EModE)		languages 133, 135, 169,
official discouragement of			/N/ and /Z/, phonemes,		170
196–97			addition of 153		see also Barbadian English;
progressive aspect	194		/S/, extension of 153		Colloquial Singapore
sentence structure	194–95		[ç] and [x] articulations 152		English; language
and social stigma 195–96			‘dark l’, vocalization of		contact; Middle English
and Speak Good English			152–53		(ME) creolization;
Movement 197			h- dropping 153		Trinidad English creole
and SSE 192–93			r-less pronunciations 153		Crowley, T. 140, 142, 178,
and standard English,			word-final clusters,		180, 184, 185, 204,
appropriate domains of			reduction of 152		204n5, 1709
197–98			word-medial [d] and [D],		Crystal, D. 1, 174, 198, 200
vocabulary 193–94			variable pronunciations		CSE see Colloquial Singapore
colonization			of 153		English
in EMod period 172–73			consonants (ME)
and global spread of English			final -n of OE inflections,		D
167			loss of 115–16		Dahood, R. 108, 109
of Singapore 189, 190–91			[h], loss of in wh clusters		Dal Raita (Scoti) 70, 72
see also creolization			115		Damico, H. 95
comparative and superlative			initial h, disappearance of		Danelaw 91, 129, 130
forms			115		dative case
EModE adjectives	157		voiceless/voiced allophones,		in ME pronouns 118, 119
ME adjectives 121			blurred distribution of		in OE 81
OE adjectives 83–84			115		Davis, N. 137

218 The History of English
de Saussure, F. 19, 173n4	verbs 159–61	epenthesis 6
definite article	vocabulary 162–67	Epistle Dedicatory to the
invariant in ME 118, 120	see also Barbadian English	Shephearde’s Calendar
in OE 82–83	Early Modern English	(Spenser) 164
DeGraff, M. 135, 138n7	(EMOdE) literature	Eskimo-Aleut languages 60
destandardization, of English	bulk printing, effect of 147	ESL (English as a second
188, 201–2	classical translations 147	language) 204n1
dialects	literary works 148	Estoire des Engleis 127
and languages 40–41, 52	religious and didactic texts	Etruscan 57
ME pronoun variations	147	etymological spellings 150
119–20	scientific treatises 147	euphemisms 21, 23–24
sociolinguistic variations	East Anglian 113	Euroasiatic super-family 60
within (OE) 75	East India Company 167, 190	evangelicals, and power of the
dictionaries 125, 147,	East Midland dialect 116, 136	gospels 140–41, 142
165–66, 185–86	Eats, Shoots and Leaves (Truss)	eye-rhymes 173n3
diphthongs	177	Eylot, Thomas 146
in EModE 154–56	Ecclesiastical History of the
in ME 117	English Nation (Bede)	F
in OE 76	67, 74	family tree model
dissimilation 6	Eckert, P. 8–9	as cultural interpretation
do, auxiliary functions for	Eco, U. 42, 44. 65n4, 51–52	51–52
(EModE) 160–61	education	mothers and daughters 50
Dolgopolsky, A. 59	and literacy 142–43	and people families 52
Dorian, N. 203, 204n3	and ME 112	and PHYLIP software
double consonants (OE) 77	revival of by Alfred 74	63–64
Dunbar, William 113	Edward III, king of England	Fellows Jensen, G. 101
Dutch borrowings (EModE)	111	feminist linguists 3
163	Edward the Confessor, king of	see also Anglo-Saxon
Dyen, I. 63	England 72, 104	gender
	Edward VIII, king of England	Fennell, B.A. 2, 5, 31, 42, 44,
E	142	64–65n3, 68, 70, 76, 81,
Early Modern (EMod) period	EFL (English as a foreign	90, 92, 113, 124, 125,
English language, centrality	language) 175, 204n1	127, 128, 132, 148
and stability of 140	Ekwall, E. 101	Fields, L. 169, 170, 172
as period of dramatic	Eleanor of Provence 110, 125	First Germanic Consonant
change 139	electronic communication	Shift 47–48, 49
social history 140–47	188, 202	First Part of the Elementarie,
Early Modern English	Elizabeth I, queen of England	The (Mulcaster) 150
(EModE)	142	Fisher, John 141
adjectives 157	Emma of Normandy 72, 104,	Fishman, J. 176, 203
grammar 156–61	105	Frantzen, A.J. 93, 94, 97,
nouns 156–57	English – Its Life and Times	100, 102n10
pronouns 157–59	(Claiborne) 1	French 18, 40, 41, 66–67, 200
pronunciation 151–56	English Academy, proposal for	French Academy 183, 184
regional and social lects	183–84	French loanwords
173n2	English Civil War 168	adoption/adaptation of 16,
spelling 149–51	English Dictionarie (Cockeram)	17
and standardized texts	165, 166	in EModE 163, 167
148–49	ENL (English as a native	in ME 18, 28, 124–27, 128,
syntax 161–62	language) 204n1	130

					Index		219
proportion of 132		go	Hala, J. 97, 98, 99
see also Central French;		+ infinitive main verb 128	Hamer, R.	73
Norman Conquest		in constructed speech 34,	Hamitic languages 42
Frisians	71	35	Hancock, I.		169
		Godwine, Earl 104, 105	Handler, J.S.		169
G		Goh Chok Tong, Prime	hard-word dictionaries 165–66
Gal, S.	203	Minister 196–97	Harold, king of England				104,
ge- completetive prefix 87,		Goidelic-speaking Celts 68	106
122–23		Gordon Childe, V. 54	Harris, George 184, 187
gender		Görlach, M. 113, 143, 144,	Harris, R.	37n9
as biological differentiation		145, 146, 147, 148, 149,	Hart, John	149–50, 152, 153
93		150, 151, 152, 153, 155,	Haugen, E. 14, 145
as cultural construction		156, 157, 158, 159, 160,	Hawick Scots 37
93–94		161, 163, 164, 165, 173n2	Heaney, S. 102, n11
and gender performance		Gothic/Old English/Old	Henry III, king of England
94–95		Norse correspondences	110, 125
gender marking		47–48	Henry IV, king of England
borrowings, adaptation of		Graddol, D. 174, 175, 176,	112
18		188, 198–200, 201, 202,	Henry VIII, king of England
grammatical versus natural		204n1	141–42
gender 3, 79–80, 95		grammar	heretical literature 139,
OE nouns 25–26, 79–80		EModE 156–61	141–42
see also Anglo-Saxon		ME 117–23	Hindi 18, 163, 200
gender		OE 78–88	Hindley, R. 204n3
generative entrenchment 171		see also prescriptive	his-genitives (EModE) 156,
Generativist school 30		tradition	157
genetics 59, 60		grammaticalization	histories, of English			1–2
genitive forms		cross-componential change	History of the Kings of Britain
of-genitives 128, 131		32	(Geoffrey of Monmouth)
of-phrases 119, 156–57		morphological processes	112
in EModE 156–57, 158		24, 25, 32–33, 134–35	Hock, H.H. 64
in ME 119		semantic/pragmatic model	Hokkien 192, 193, 194
in OE 81–82		of 35	Hólfr (Rollo), duke of
Germanic ancestor of English		Great Bible 142	Normandy 104
assimilation 6		Great Vowel Shift 7, 154–55	Holm, J. 167
and First Germanic		Greek	Honey, J. 188
Consonant Shift 47–48		compounding 11	Hortop, J. 158
and First Germanic Vowel		inflecting languages 29	humanism 143, 146
Shift 7		loanwords 27	Hume, Richard 141
Germanic sub-family		see also Latin;	Hundred Years War 111
46–47		standardization
Latin borrowings in 91		Greenberg, J. 31, 32, 59, 61	I
and OE noun declensions		Gregory, Pope 71, 74	i-mutation (plurals)			6, 24, 25,
80–81		Grimm, Jacob 46, 47–48	78, 119
typological harmony, lack		Grimm’s Law 47–48, 49	Ickowicz, C.		66
of	31–32	Gupta, A.F. 191	Illich-Svitych, V. M.			59
Gil, Alexander 150, 152			Indian English 40, 176
Gildas	101n6	H	indigenous language
Gilman, A. 158		Haitian French Creole 133,	borrowings (EModE)
Gimbatus, M. 54–55, 58		138n7	163

220 The History of English
Indo-European			K		language endangerment
cognate data, and			Kachru model 204n1		175–76
reconstruction 45–46,			Kandiah, T. 189, 190, 193,		language families
46f, 48, 49t			204n1		and reconstructive
common source theories			Kaufman, T. 82, 92, 127, 128,		methodology 60–61
42, 44–45, 46			130, 132		researcher perspectives,
comparative reconstruction			Kentish dialect 75, 113		effect of 60
46–52			King James Bible 142		super-families, proposals for
core lexicon concept 45			Knowles, G. 149		59–60
family tree model 50–52			Kortlandt, F. 54, 55		written records, sparseness
Germanic sub-family			Kossina, G.	54	of 60
46–47			Kruskal, J.B.	63	see also family tree model
linguistic genealogies			Kurgan/Russian steppe		Lass, R. 32, 64, 171
45–46			homeland theory		Latin
Perfect Language, search for			Anatolia, postulated as		and auxiliary do 160–61
44–45			homeland 56, 57		and Catholic Church
plausibility, and need for			and challenges to linguists		139–40
large data sets 49			57		and compounding 11
question/problem of 53–54			daughter languages,		and copia verborum		162
sound changes 47–48, 49			evolution of 55, 56–57		in EMod period, and
taboo words 23			Kurgan		challenge of English 146
see also Proto-Indo-			migrations/invasions		and grammar schools 143
European			54–55		inflecting languages		29
Indo-Pacific super-family 59			non-IE languages, survival		language change, and
Industrial Revolution 174			of 57		social/moral decline
initialisms 12–13			PIE/Uralic affiliations		179–80, 182
inkhorn terms 165–66			55–56, 57		for public records	112
instrumental case		81	spread of agriculture, and		under Roman rule	69
internal reconstruction			spread of PIE 56–57		Romance languages		45
method 64			‘wave of advance’ model		and Sanskrit,
Internet, and English 202			56		correspondences		47–48
Irish English	7				for scientific treatises 14,
Irish Gaelic	68		L		15, 147, 163
Italian loanwords		16, 41,	L2		and standardization
163			English as 40		186–87
			learners, numbers of 175		veneration of, and
J			and local varieties of		perceived shortcomings
Japanese 16, 200			English	199	of English 162, 163, 164,
Japhetic languages		42	Labov, W. 8, 9		165
Jaworksi, A.	37n1		Lal, P. 43		Latin loanwords
Jefferson, Thomas		93	Lange, D. 33–35		and etymological spellings
Jenkins, J. 64n1, 204n1			language, and nation		150
Jenkins 2003 175			and CSE 198		in Germanic ancestor of
John, king of England 109–10			in EMod period 79, 172–73		English 91
Johnson, Samuel 185–86			in ME period 109		in OE 14–15, 91
Jones, C. 79			language contact		Lees, C. 93, 95, 99, 100
Jones, M.C. 204n3			and language change 127		Lees, R. 100
Jones, Sir William 42–44			linguistic outcomes 129–30		Lehmann, W.P. 31
Julius Caesar	68		nature of	127, 132	Leis Wilheme (‘Laws of
Jutes 71, 75, 91			see also creolization		William’) 127

						Index 221
Leith, D. 158	literacy	142–43				tense-and-aspect system
levelling see analogical	Lithulf	108				128, 130
levelling	Liuzza, R.M. 98					verbs 121–23
Levin, S. 59	Logonomia (Gil)			150		vocabulary 15, 124–28
lexical change	Lowth, Robert 187					see also Norman Conquest
acronyms 12–13	Luther, Martin 141					Middle English (ME)
affixation 11–12						creolization
back-formation 13	M					and ‘analyticity’ of ME
blending 12	Ma’a 40					131, 133, 134, 135
borrowing 14–19	Macauley, Thomas					case for 129
clipping 12	Babbington			189		features of 128–29, 130,
compounding 10–11	Malaccca Sultanate 190					131
conversion 10	Malay 191, 192, 193, 204n10					stages of 129–30
core vocabulary notion 9	Mallory, J.P. 42, 43t, 49, 50,					‘substantial language
initialisms 12–13	52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 64,					mixing’, claim of 132
made-up words 14	65n3, 65n6, 65n7					see also creolization;
re-analysis 13	Mandarin		41			language contact
revival of old words 10	Manx 68					Middle English (ME)
speed of 9	Maroldt, K. 82, 92, 127,					literature
trademark names 13	128–36					Arthurian romances 113
word classes, across and	Marr, A. 66					English dialects, writing in
within 9–10	Mary, queen of England 142					112–13
word loss 10	McMahon, A. 6, 14, 15, 16,					French texts, translations of
Li Quatre Livre des Reis 127	17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25,					112
Lick, H.C. 193, 194	28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 37n1,					legal/medical/personal/
Life of St Thomas Becket	155, 173n4					documents 113
(William of Canterbury)	McMahon, A. & R. 2, 61,					literature in French,
108	62–64					patronized by court 112
Lightfoot, D. 30, 37	ME corpus 113, 118, 119					Scottish poets 113
like, as discourse marker	meaning see semantic change					Middle English (ME) period
33–35, 38n11	Meillet, A. 32, 33, 35					education 112
Lily, W. and Colet, J. 166	Mercian dialect			75, 113		English, establishment of
linguistic change	metaphorization			21–22		108–12
determining factors 5	metathesis 7					and Magna Carta 109–10
and diachronic narrative	metonymy 22					multilingualism 109
36	metrical stress patterns, in					natural disasters and war,
internally versus externally	Anglo-Saxon poetry				73	effect of 110–11
motivated 5	Middle English Dictionary				125	Normans, assimilation of in
process of 6, 39–40	Middle English (ME)					France 104–5
sociolinguistic measurement	adjectives 118–21					Parliament, first in English
5	definite article 118, 120					111–12
and synchronic variation	dialects		113			relative socio-political
35–36	grammar 117–23					stability 139
see also lexical change;	inflectional reduction				115,	ruling classes, disputes of
morphological change;	117–18					103
semantic change; sound	nouns 118–19					scribal class, as trilingual
change; syntactic change	pronouns 119–20					109
linguistic democracy,	pronunciation			115–17		in urban centres 112
humanist ideal of 146	spelling		114, 126–27			Midland dialect 120
Lippi-Green, R. 7	syntax		123–24			Millar, S. 204

222 The History of English
Mills, A.D. 101		linguistic ‘decay’ 29–30,	Nostratic super-family 59
Milroy, J. 148		179–80, 182	noun phrase recapitulation
Milroy, J. & L. 144, 145, 146,		Morrish, J. 23	(EModE) 162
179, 187–88, 199, 204		Morte d’Arthur (Malory) 113	nouns
Mitchell, B. 67, 70, 73, 74,		Mufwene, S. 135, 138n4,	in CSE 194
79, 95, 96, 101n4, 102		170–71, 173n6	in EModE 156–57
modal verbs		Mulcaster, Richard 146, 150	in ME 118–19
consecutive occurrences of		multilateral comparison	in OE 25–26, 79–82
37		59–60, 61	Nun’s Priest’s Tale (Chaucer)
and re-analysis	30	my/mine and thy/thine 158	136
Modern English		mystery plays 113	Nyorsk 41
Anglo-American culture,
impact of 174		N	O
Empire, and global		Na-Déné languages 60	object pronouns, with be
expansion of English 174		Native American languages	128–29
English speakers, numbers		60, 176	Olaf Tryggvason, king of
of 175		Neogrammarians 25, 48	Norway 72
global publishing industry,		Neolithic settlers 68, 101n5	Old English (OE)
and English	175	Nettle, D. 12, 176	adjectives 83–84
and Kachru model 204n1		new Englishes 40, 52	analogical levelling 27
and language endangerment		New Imperialism 189	Anglo-Saxon/Old English,
175–76		Nigerian English 40	use of terms 101n3
new ‘hybrid’ varieties,		Niles, N. 171–72, 172	versus classical languages
emergence of 175		nominative case 81	and French 66–67
post-war international		nonce-formations 12	definite article 82–83
organizations 174–75		Norman Conquest	dialects 75
monogenesis 133		Anglo-French,	grammar 78–88
monophthongization 117		establishment of 66,	and modern English 75–76
More, Thomas 141		107–9, 112	morphological typology 29,
morphological change		Anglo-Norman, use of term	30, 78–79
analogical extension 25–27		138n1	nouns 25–26, 79–82
analogical levelling 27		French courtly culture,	orthographic conventions
back-formation 27–28		admiration of 110, 112	76–77
contamination	28	and linguistic change	personal pronouns 84
folk etymology	28	103–4	plural forms 25–26
and phonological change		ruling classes, displacement	pre-modals, and re-analysis
24, 25		of 106–7	30
re-analysis 25		Normans, assimilation of in	spelling and pronunciation
regularity, and irregularity		France 104–5	75, 76–78
25, 27		Norse borrowings 17, 91–92,	syntax 88–89
and syntactic change 24,		130	textual materials,
25		Norse creolization 129–30	limitations of 75
typological change 28–30		North West Germanic 31–32	typological change 29, 30,
morphological typologies		Northern California Vowel	32
agglutinating languages 28,		Shift 8	verbs 85–88
29, 30		Northern Cities Shift 36	vocabulary 14–15, 89–92
analytical languages 28, 29		Northern dialect 116, 120,	West Saxon dialect, focus
and OE 29, 30, 78–79		136	on 75
synthetic languages 29, 30		Northumbrian dialect 75, 113	Old English (OE) period
synthetic perfection, and		Norway 41	Anglo-Saxons 67, 70–71

				Index	223
Æthelbert’s conversion to			phonological change see	printing
Christianity 71			sound change	English Bible, emergence of
Celts, linguistic legacy of			Pictet, A. 53, 65n4	141–42
68, 69, 70			Picts 70, 72	and orthographic
English language, birth-date			pidgins 138n6, 186	conventions 149, 150
of 67–68			PIE see Proto-Indo-European	reading and writing
Roman rule 68–69			Piers Plowman (Langland)	markets, expansion of
Romano-Celtic culture 69			112	143–44, 147
Saxon, Pict, and Dal Raita			place names	and standardization 145
invasions	69–70		Aboriginal languages 15	pronunciation
Stone Age settlements 68			Celtic 15, 91	EModE 151–56
Viking raids 71–73			Platzer, H. 79–80, 80, 95	ME 115–17
Old French 6, 11, 129			plural forms	OE 76–78
Old High German 44			analogical extension	shifts, and social meaning
Old Norse 61, 73, 85, 91–92,			14–17, 25–26	8–9
130			in EModE 156	Proposal for Correcting,
Old Slavonic 44			i-mutation 6, 24, 25, 78,	Improving and
Orël, V.E. 59			119	Ascertaining the English
orthographic conventions			in ME 118, 119	Tongue (Swift)
in ME 149			in OE 25–26, 82	ancient civilizations,
in OE 76–77			polite language 180, 204n7	examples of 179–80
Overing, G.O. 93, 95, 99,			Portuguese 16	‘corruption’ of English, by
100			possessive marking see	‘false Refinements’
Overing, G.R. 93, 96			genitive forms	181–82
			pre-modal verbs 30	English Academy, proposal
P			prescriptive tradition	for 183–84
palaeo-anthropology		59	British Empire, unification	fixity, need for 182–84
Palaeolithic settlers		68	of 178, 185	historical records, suitable
Papuan languages 59			grammatical usage,	medium for 182–83,
Paris, M. 110			guidelines for 186–87	185
Parsons, James	42, 43t		ideology of standardization	language and nation, as
passive constructions 124			187–88	inextricably tied 179
past participle see strong and			influential individuals,	language change, and
weak verbs			efforts of 185	social/moral decline
Peasants Revolt (1381) 111			Johnson’s Dictionary, as	179–80, 181–82
pejoration 22–23, 24			both descriptive and	writers, desire for
perfect aspect	128		prescriptive 185–86	immortality for 182, 185
periphrastic do	160–61		linguistic change, and	Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
Persian 31, 163			socio-cultural change	Avis akvasas ka folk tale	50
personal pronouns			177–78	common-source theories
in EModE 157–59			Sheridan’s support for	42, 44–45, 46
in ME 118, 119–20			184–85	Indo-European family tree
in OE 84–85			see also Proposal for	50–51
Peterborough Chronicle 118,			Correcting, Improving and	language families, search for
119, 124			Ascertaining the English	41–42
Pettie, G. 147			Tongue	linguistic affinities 42–44
Philip Augustus of France			preterite forms	Proto-Indo-European (PIE)
138n3			in ME 122	homeland
Phonological Atlas of North			see also strong and weak	archaeological evidence,
America	36, 37n3		verbs	integration of 54–55

224 The History of English
Proto-Indo-European (PIE)	relexification 133	semantic bleaching 32, 33
homeland (cont.)	Remains of Japhet (Parsons) 42	semantic change
evidence, subjective	Renaissance scholars 143,	amelioration 22–23
interpretations of 58	146, 147	arbitrariness, of meaning
Kurgan/Russian steppe	Renfrew, C. 53, 54, 55,	19, 20
homeland theory 54–58	56–57, 58	communities of uses,
linguistic palaeontology,	Restoration period, and	changes in 20
and problem of semantic	moral/linguistic decline	euphemism 23–24
change 53, 54, 57–58	181	extension 21
migrations, archaeological	rhyme	grammaticalization 20
and linguistic evidence	as evidence of	inter-generational
for 52–53	pronunciation 151,	transmission	20
pastoral culture, assumption	173n3	loanwords 21
of 53, 58	in OE poetry 73	material culture, changes in
Proto-Indo-Uralic 56	Richard II, king of England	20
proto-Uralic 55–56	111	metaphorization 21–22
Proto-World 59	Richlieu, Cardinal 184	metonymy 22
Provision of Oxford	Rickford, J. 169	morphosyntactical change
documents 110	river names 91	20
Pulleyblank, E.G. 59	Romaine, S. 12, 33–35, 176	pejoration 22–23, 24
Pulsiano, P. 74, 101n4	Roman rule 68–69	polysemic, words as 19–20
Pyles, T. 11–12, 21, 23, 24,	Romance languages 41, 45,	psychological factors 21
28, 33, 73, 76, 77, 81, 82,	52	restriction 21
84, 87, 88, 90, 101, 116,	Rothwell, W. 109, 125–27	signifier-signified
117, 119, 125, 150, 153,		relationship	19–20
155, 156	S	synecdoche 22
	Sanskrit	as ‘wrong’ 19
Q	borrowings 16	Semitic languages	42
Quakers 158	and Hindi 46	Seymour, Edward (Lord
quantitative methods,	and Latin 47–48	Protector) 142
development of	and PIE 43, 44, 50	Shakespeare, William 14, 22,
cognacy, determining	satellite television culture	148
through meaning 63	201–2	Shepheardes Calendar, The
cognate database used 63	Saxons 70, 71	(Spencer) 160
Embleton’s three-stage	see also Anglo-Saxons	Sheridan, Richard 178,
process 62–63	Scaliger, J. 64n3	184–85
non Indo-European	Schama, S. 68, 70, 71, 72,	Short Introduction to English
languages, application to	102n6, 104, 105, 106,	Grammar (Lowth) 187
64	109, 110, 111, 140, 141	Singapore
PHYLIP software package	Schendl, H. 138n2	British colonization of 189,
63	Schiffman, H.F. 204n3	190–91
sub-family groupings 63–64	Schilling-Estes, N. 8, 36	and English-medium
	Schleicher, A. 29, 46, 50,	schools 189–92
R	179	linguistic intermediaries in
Raffles, Sir Stamford 190	Schmidt, A. 203	189, 191
Rankin, Bob 62	Schmidt, Johannes 64	multi-lingual status of
Rask, Rasmus 46	Schrader, Otto 53, 54	190–92
re-analysis 13, 18, 25, 30	Scots 40–41, 113	see also Colloquial
Reformation, Protestant	Scottish Gaelic 68	Singapore English
139–40, 143	Sebba, M. 173n6	Singh, I. 134, 173n6

			Index		225
Singlish see Colloquial		spelling (ME)	preterite/past participle
Singapore English		/g/, representation of	forms (OE) 85–87
Sir Gawain and the Green		allophonic values of 114	Structuralism 154
Knight 113, 122, 136–37		c, disambiguation of	Sturtevant’s Paradox	25
Smith, A.H.G. 141, 143		allophones of 114,	substitute verb, do as	124
Smith, J. 154, 155		126–27	super-families 59–60
Smith, J.J. 162		introduction of graph v for	superlative forms see
Smithers, G.V. 132		[v] 114	comparative and
sound change		long vowels,	superlative forms
segmental (languages) 7–9		representations of 114	suppletive paradigms	88, 101
segmental (words) 6–7		OE hw, change to wh 114	Swahili 28
term, scope of 6		OE sc, replacement by sh	SWDE see South-Western
South-Eastern dialect	113	114	Dialectical English
South-Western dialect	113	v and u for both consonant	Swift, Jonathan 3, 178–84,
South-Western Dialectical		and vowel sounds 114	186, 187
English (SWDE) 167–73		spelling (OE) 76–78	syncope 7
Southern Vowel Shift		SSE see Standard Singapore	synecdoche 22
(American English) 7–8,		English	synonyms 17
36		Standard Singapore English	syntactic change
Space Crew English 39, 40,		(SSE) 192–93	grammaticalization 32–33
41, 49, 202		see also Colloquial	re-analysis 30
Spanish 16, 41, 200		Singapore English	VO and OV languages,
in EModE 163		standardization, of English	properties of 31–32
grammaticalization	25	and CSE as corrupted local	word-order typologies
and Vulgar Latin 40		form 195	30–31
Speak Good English		and ELT industry 199–200	syntax (EModE)
Movement (Singapore)		of EModE spelling 145,	subject-verb/subject-
197		146	auxiliary inversions		161
spelling (EModE)		of grammatical usage	(S)VO pattern 161
classical texts, regularity of		186–87	syntax (ME)
149		ideology of 187–88	do, functions of 124
consonant representation		Latin and Greek, ideal of	French SVO word order
151		144–45, 146	128
etymological 150		role of printing in 145	new prepositions, addition
ME orthographic		single world-wide standard,	of 124
conventions 149		possibility of 198–99,	noun phrases 123
‘obligatory rules’, lack of		200	passive constructions		124
149–51		see also prescriptive	subject-verb inversion		123
phonemic transparency,		tradition	VO structures 123
attempts to institute 150		Starostin, S. 59	syntax (OE)
printers, and orthographic		Statutes of Pleading 111	negative statements 89
conventions 149, 150		Strang, B.M.H. 4	OV structures 88–89
spelling conventions, fixing		Strevens 199	question forms 89
of 150–51		strong and weak verbs	syncretism, effect of 88
spelling reforms 149–50		analogical extension 26	VO structures 88–89
standardization of 145,		preterite/past participle	V(S)O structures	88, 89
146		forms (EModE) 160
word-final -e, fixing of 150		preterite/past participle	T
y to represent [D], fixing of		forms (ME) 121–22,	taboo words 23–24
150–51		123	Tamil 204n10

226 The History of English
Tasmania 59	Tyndale, William 141–42		W
technology, potential	Tyneside English 37		Wales, K. 113
influence of 201–2			Waller, Edmund 204
technostrategic language 24	U		War of American
Teutonism, wave of 164	Ullman, S. 21		Independence 189
Thomas, T. 166	Urdu 200		Wardaugh, R. 41
Thomason, S.G. 39, 40, 82,			Watts, D. 167, 168, 204
92, 127, 128, 130, 132	V		Watts, R. 2, 3, 148
thou/thee 131, 157–58	verbs		wave model, of language
Tomlinson, Mike 177	in EModE 159–61		families 64
trademark names 13, 36	in ME 121–23		weak verbs see strong and
Trask, L. 11, 12, 13, 22, 26,	in OE 85–88		weak verbs
28, 29, 31, 32, 48, 52, 54,	see also strong and weak		Webster, Noah 187
57, 58, 59, 60, 64	verbs		Wee, L. 17, 193
Traugott, E. 35	Verner, Karl 48		Welsh 41, 68
Treharne, E.M. 74, 101n4	Verner’s Law 48		West African Pidgin
Trinidad English creole	Vietnamese 28		Portugese (WAPP)
133–34, 135	Viking raids (Danes) 71–73		138n6
Trudghill, P. 2, 3, 148, 167,	vocabulary (EModE)	162–67	West Midland dialect 116
189	vocabulary (ME) 15, 18, 28,		West Saxon dialect 74–75,
Truss, Lynn 177	124–28		113
Turkish 28	vocabulary (OE)		Whinnom, K. 133
Turville-Petre, T. 118, 119,	affixation 90		Whistler, H. 168
121, 122, 124, 137	amalgamated compounds		Wilkins, J. 163
twenty-first century, and	90		William of Canterbury	108
English	Celtic borrowings	91	William the Conqueror	104,
‘big six’ languages 200–201	compounding 11, 90		105, 106, 107
ELT industry, and	Latin borrowings 91		Wilson, Thomas 146
standardized conventions	Old Norse borrowings 61,		Wimsatt, W.C. 171
199–200	73, 91–92, 130		Winford, D. 169
English, future of world	Voeglin, C.E. & F.M.	64	Wolfram, W. 8, 36
status of 198–99	vowels (EModE)		Wolsey, Cardinal 141, 142
linguistic global influence,	diphthong changes	155–56	Wooton, W. 65n3
indicators of 200–201	Great Vowel Shift	154–55	word order see syntactic
linguistic pluralism,	short vowels, relative		change; syntax
predicted increase in 201	stability of 155		Wurm, S. 59
local varieties of English	vowels (ME)		Wycliffe, John 140
199	diphthongs, new 117
single world-wide standard,	lengthening 116, 117		Y
possibility of 198–99,	levelling 117		ye/you 131, 157–58
200	monophthongization 117		Young, Thomas 44
technology, potential	shortening 117
influence of 201–2	vowels (OE) 76