PART I

Unit 1

Grammar:

1. Indefinite Tenses

Ex. 1. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1.Ecology overlaps with many other disciplines.

2.The environment of an organism consists of all those factors and phenomena outside the organism that influence it.

3.Ecology deals with three levels of concern.

4.The explanation lies in the ecological experience of the ancestors.

5.Many problems in ecology demand evolutionary and ultimate explanations.

6.How does it come about that coexisting species are often similar, but rarely the same?

7.What causes predators to adopt particular patterns of foraging behavior?

2. Modal Verbs

Ex.2. Identify the meaning of the modal verb. Translate the sentences.

1.We can understand the processes from a consideration of the component populations.

2.We must have a description of whatever it is that we wish to understand.

3.The present state of a particular species may be explained in terms of its physical environment and the food it eats.

4.The question has to be answered by an explanation in evolutionary terms.

5.Our ability to control and exploit cannot fail to be improved by an ability to explain and understand.

6.By distinguishing various types of predator and establishing what characteristics they share and how they differ, we will be able to develop understanding of the precise nature of predation.

7.They were able to support their general contention.

8.Ecology might be thought of as the study of the ‘home life’ of living organisms.

9.We must remember that every life history and every habitat is unique.

10.The fixed organisms have to tolerate the whole daily cycle of change in their environment.

Word Study

Ex.1. Read the words. Give their Russian equivalents:

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Ecology, ecologists, organism, factor, phenomena, physical, chemicals, position, population, individuals, characteristics, structure, composition, biomass, discipline, biology, genetics, evolution, physiology, migration, nature, global, laboratory, systems, mathematical models.

Ex.2. Translate the following words and word combinations:

Scientific study of the interactions; the word is derived from; much less vague definition; the ultimate subject matter; ecology deals with; pathways followed by energy; the particular concern of ecology; consequences of man’s influence on nature; be judged in terms of; levels of concern; a major aim of; a crucial role.

Ex.3. Words to be remembered:

Man-made/man-influenced environment; to determine; distribution and abundance of organisms; the merit of; to pinpoint; to occur; definition; abiotic factors; to retain; structure of community; nutrients; central discipline; behavior; to affect; nature reserves; pollution; global warming; the development of; to simplify; the complexity of natural systems.

Reading A: ECOLOGY AND ITS DOMAIN

Ex.1. Read the text. Pay attention to the subject-matter of ecology as a scientific study.

The word 'ecology' was first used by Ernest Haeckel in 1869. Paraphrasing Haeckel we can define ecology as the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment. The word is derived from the Greek oikos, meaning 'home'. Ecology might therefore be thought of as the study of the 'home life' of living organisms. A more informative, much less vague definition has been suggested by Krebs (1972): 'Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms.' This definition has the merit of pinpointing the ultimate subject matter of ecology: the distribution and abundance of organisms— where organisms occur, how many there are and what they do.

It is necessary to define the word ‘environment’. The environment of an organism consists of all those factors and phenomena outside the organism that influence it, whether those factors be physical and chemical (abiotic) or other organisms (biotic). The 'interactions' in Krebs's definition are, of course, interactions with these very factors. The environment had therefore retained the central position that Haeckel gave it in the definition of ecology.

Ecology deals with three levels of concern: the individual organism, the population (consisting of individuals of the same species) and the community (consisting of a greater or lesser number of populations).

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At the level of the organism, ecology deals with how individuals are affected by (and how they affect) their biotic and abiotic environment. At the level of the population, ecology deals with the presence or absence of particular species, with their abundance or rarity, and with the trends and fluctuations in their numbers. Community ecology deals with the composition structure of communities, and with the pathways followed by energy, nutrients and other chemicals as they pass through them.

Ecology is a central discipline in biology, and therefore, not surprisingly, it overlaps with many other disciplines, especially genetics, evolution, behaviour and physiology. The particular concern of ecology, however, is with those characteristics that most affect distribution and abundance — the processes of birth, death and migration. Ecologists are concerned not only with communities, populations and organisms in nature, but also with man-made or man-influenced environments (orchards, wheat fields, grain stores, nature reserves and so on), and with the consequences of man's influence on nature (pollution, global warming and so on). Perhaps less obviously, ecologists also often become interested in laboratory systems and mathematical models. These have played a crucial role in the development of ecology, and they are bound to continue to do so. A major aim of science is to simplify, and thereby make it easier to understand the complexity of the real world. Ultimately, therefore, it is the real world that we are interested in, and the worth of models and simple laboratory experiments must always be judged in terms of the light they throw on the working of more natural systems.

Ex.2. Comprehension check-up.

1.How do two early definitions of ecology differ?

2.What do ‘abiotic factors’ mean?

3.What three levels of concern does Ecology deal with?

4.What does it deal with at the level of the organism?

5.What does it deal with at the level of the population?

6.What does Community ecology deal with?

7.What disciplines does ecology overlap with?

8.Are ecologists interested only in natural systems?

9.Why are laboratory systems and mathematical models so important?

10.What is a major aim of science?

Ex.3.

Render the Text using the following words and word combinations, which help to emphasize important things, to express possibility, to compare and conclude:

… might therefore … … …; The ultimate subject matter of; Not surprisingly… … …;

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The particular concern of…;

However …;

Not only … … but ;

A crucial role in …;

The major aim of …;

Ultimately, therefore … … …

Reading B: Explanation, description, prediction and control

Ex.1. Read the text. Find its main points:

At all levels of the ecological hierarchy we can try to do a number of different things. In the first place we can try to explain and understand. This is a search for knowledge in the pure scientific tradition. In order to do this, however, it is necessary, first to describe. This, too, adds to our knowledge of the living world. Obviously, in order to understand something, we must first have a description of whatever it is that we wish to understand. Equally, but less obviously, the most valuable descriptions are those carried out with a particular problem or 'need for understanding' in mind. All descriptions are selective; but undirected description, carried out for its own sake, is often found afterwards to have selected the wrong things.

Ecologists also often try to predict what will happen to an organism, a population or a community under a particular set of circumstances; and on the basis of these predictions we try to control or exploit them. We try to minimize the effects of locust plagues by predicting when they are likely to occur and taking appropriate action. We try to protect crops by predicting when conditions will be favourable to the crop and unfavourable to its enemies. We try to preserve rare species by predicting the conservation policy that will enable us to do so. Some prediction and control can be carried out without explanation or understanding. But confident predictions, precise predictions and predictions of what will happen in unusual circumstances can be made only when we can also explain what is going on.

It is important to realize that there are two different classes of explanation in biology: proximal and ultimate explanations. For example, the present distribution and abundance of a particular species of bird may be ‘explained’ in terms of the physical environment that the bird tolerates, the food that it eats and the parasites and predators that attack it. This is a proximal explanation. However, we may also ask how this species of bird has come to have these properties that now appear to govern its life. This question has to be answered by an explanation in evolutionary terms. The ultimate explanation of the present distribution and abundance of this bird lies in the ecological experiences of its ancestors.

There are many problems in ecology that demand evolutionary, ultimate explanations. 'How does it come about that coexisting species are often similar but rarely the same?’, 'What causes predators to adopt particular patterns of foraging

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behaviour?', and 'How have organisms come to possess particular combinations of size, developmental rate, reproductive output and so on?'. These problems are as much a part of modern ecology as are the prevention of plagues, the protection of crops and the preservation of rarities. Our ability to control and exploit cannot fail to be improved by an ability to explain and understand. In the search for understanding, we must combine both proximal and ultimate explanations.

Ex.2. Answer the following questions:

1.What is the first stage in the search for knowledge in the pure scientific tradition?

2.In order to understand something, what is necessary to do first?

3.How important is prediction for ecologists?

4.Is it possible to predict without understanding and explanation?

5.What’s important for precise prediction?

6.In what way is it possible to explain?

7.What’s the difference between proximal and ultimate explanation?

8.What problems of modern ecology do you know?

9.What should our ability to control and exploit be improved by?

Ex.3. Speak on the abilities, which are important in the search for ecological knowledge.

Ex.4. Translate the sentences into English using the words from the texts:

1.Экология – это наука о тех взаимосвязях, которые определяют распределение и численность организмов.

2.Основным предметом изучения в экологии являются распространение и численность особей.

3.Окружающая среда вида состоит из внешних и влияющих на него абиотических и биотических факторов.

4.Экология имеет дело с тремя уровнями значимости: отдельный организм, популяция, сообщество.

5.На уровне организма экология изучает то, как окружающая среда воздействует на отдельный организм.

6.На уровне популяции экология имеет дело с колебаниями в численности видов.

7.Экология сообщества изучает композицию и структуру сообществ, пути, по которым следуют энергия и другие вещества.

8.Экология является центральной дисциплиной в биологии и поэтому частично соприкасается со многими дисциплинами, как, например, генетика и физиология.

9.Экологов интересуют сообщества организмов в природе, а также искусственно созданная среда и последствия влияния человека на природу.

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10.Значительную роль в развитии науки-экологии играют различные математические модели и лабораторные экосистемы.

11.Основная роль лабораторных экспериментов и моделей состоит в том, чтобы пролить свет на действие природных систем и сделать понятнее сложность реального мира.

12.Пытаясь понять и объяснить явления окружающего мира, экологи прежде всего осуществляют описание того, что подлежит пониманию.

13.На основе предсказания возможных явлений экологи пытаются контролировать и использовать природу.

14.Существуют объяснения проксимальные и окончательные, основные. Первые осуществляются в терминах физического окружения, например, какоголибо вида; вторые основываются на эволюционном развитии вида.

Determine the distribution and abundance; the ultimate subject matter of; factors outside the organism; deals with three levels of concern; how individuals are affected by fluctuations in species numbers; pathways followed by energy; overlaps with many other disciplines; ecologists are concerned with a crucial role in the development of; throw the light on the working of; carry out the descriptions of whatever it is that we wish to understand;

Ex.5. Ask questions (in turn with your partner: student A and student B) in English and check your partner’s answers.

Student A:

1.Что является первым этапом в поиске знания при традиционном научном подходе?

(In the first place we can try to explain or understand. – This is a search for knowledge in the pure scientific tradition.)

2.Насколько важно для экологов предвидение?

(Ecologists try to predict what will happen to an organism, a population or a community under a particular set of circumstances and on the basis of these predictions they try to control or exploit them.)

3. Что играет важную роль для точного предсказания?

(Confident predictions can be made only when we can also explain what is going on.)

4. В чем разница между проксимальным и окончательным / точным объяснением?

(When we try to explain the distribution and abundance of a particular species in terms of its physical environment, it is called a proximal explanation. And when the solving lies in the ecological experiences of a species ancestors, it is an evolutionary, ultimate explanation.)

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