Modern theories

It is now agreed that the effectiveness of the acts that may convert the message into text (including speaking, writing, drawing and physical movements) depends upon the knowledge of the sender. If the sender is not familiar with the current language, its codes and its culture then he or she will not be able to say anything at all, whether as a visitor in a different language area or because of a medical condition such as aphasia (see Roman Jakobson). Modern theories deny the Saussurian distinction between signifier and signified, and look for meaning not in the individual signs, but in their context and the framework of potential meanings that could be applied. Such theories assert that language is a collective memory or cultural history of all the different ways in which meaning has been communicated and may, to that extent, be constitutive of all life's experiences (see Louis Hjelmslev). This implies that speaking is simply one more form of behaviour and changes the focus of attention from the text as language, to the text as a representation of purpose, a functional version of the author's intention. But, once the message has been transmitted, the text exists independently. Hence, although the writers who co-operated to produce this page exist, they can only be represented by the signs actually selected and presented here. The interpretation process in the receiver's mind may attribute meanings completely different to those intended by the senders. Why might this happen? Neither the sender nor the receiver of a text has a perfect grasp of all language. Each individual's relatively small stock of knowledge is the product of personal experience and their attitude to learning. When the audience receives the message, there will always be an excess of connotational meanings available to be applied to the particular signs in their context (no matter how relatively complete or incomplete their knowledge, the cognitive process is the same). The first stage in understanding the message is, therefore, to suspend or defer judgement until more information becomes available. At some point, the individual receiver decides which of all the possible meanings represents the best possible "fit". Sometimes, uncertainty may not be resolved so meaning is indefinitely deferred, or a provisional or approximate meaning is allocated. More often, the receiver's desire for closure (see Gestalt psychology) leads to simple meanings being attributed out of prejudices and without reference to the sender's intentions.

1.2 Answer the questions:

1. What is a sign as characterised by Saussure? How does he interpret its structure?

2. Is there a connection between a signifier and its signified? Justify your answer.

3. Is there any natural or causal relation between the inherent properties of the object and the nature of the sign used to denote it?

4. What does Saussure mean by ‘relative motivation’?

5. What are the courses for the word to acquire a new meaning?

6. State 2 basis statements that formed structuralism.

7. What is the main difference between Peirce’s and Saussurian approach to understanding signs? How does Pierce define a sign? According to Pierce, is there any connection between a signifier and its signified?

8. Name and explain 3 main distinct components of a sign as stated by Pierce.

9. How do signs establish meaning in Pierce’s theory?

10. What is the mechanism of perceiving a sign by the brain?

11. What does Pierce mean by the ‘ground’ of a sign?

12. Explain the process of referring, affected by a sign, in Pierce’s mechanism. Is it infinite? How do different ways of expressing the same idea develop?

13. Correlate Peirce’s and Saussurian structure of a sign and comment on the differences. In what way Pierce’s interpretation is better?

14. What do modern sign theories concentrate on?

15. Do they support Peirce’s or Saussurian interpretation of a sign?

16. How is language understood in modern theories? How is speaking interpreted? What is the role of cultural context in the process of communication?

17. What are the reasons for the receivers to attribute completely different meanings to a sign (text)?

18. What happens when the audience receives a message?

19. What are the stages of cognitive process while understanding the message?

20. What happens when the receiver doesn’t refer to the sender’s intentions directly?

1.3 Find additional information about signs from textbooks “Introduction to Linguistics”, “Linguistics” and speak about signs from linguistic point of view according to the plan:

• the definition of a sign

• the main features of a sign

• the structure os a sign

• types of signs

• the difference between a sign and a gesture

• conditions for the object to become a sign

WRITING

Write a survey report “Linguistic interpretation of signs” (not the structure of a survey report on pages 39-40).

List of active vocabulary

Part 1

fame and fortune

Subtopic 1: The world’s famous person I admire.

Basic vocabulary

Notes

down-to-earth grounded approachable to be well off charisma ephemeral evidently foremost infamous eminent notorious publicity rags to riches role model serendipity short-lived significant tormented slouch vulnerable epitome itch foster parents to tug to chunk commander-in-chief armed forces reserves of oil and natural gas to develop to exploit shell wealth affluent publicity to make public appearances to come up to overlook chandelier multi-storey high-tech car-park per capita income a mail-order shopper gadget possessions jacuzzi to acquire cartooning correspondence course series of experimental type of films talking cartoon to provide the voice to smb., short cartoons a driving force imaginative /creative part of partnership to act out the stories to do voices / actions a feature-length cartoon to release a film True-Life Adventures natural habitat jockey commentary tricky editing low-budget live-action feature films to mix live action with cartoons to see the potential of smth. to create films directly for TV EPCOT house style to appeal to stand for to elect to serve … terms as to make an impact on/in to take office fame to enter politics annexe petty bureaucracy to launch for campaign non-party platform to reckon / to be reckoned with to be rated as flashes of temper eccentric behaviour to turn for Presidency / Mayor to (fail to) secure a majority lucrative to cut the crime rate subversive resilience self-willed gags inanimate bust adroitness to charge /a charge corresponding to reconcile to efface ominous prudently turbulent unfounded macabre tramp hard-grained dimension centenary to venerate to mount surpassing juggling a slapstick king to defy to trip smth. up down-at-heal to sport ever-rowing (eye) promiscuousness appendectomy sole prime place to sling porcupine misogyny fulcrum to spark off to bequeath body-snatcher allegations.