Modification of vowels in connected speech

Vowels in unstressed syllables are usually reduced. Reduction is a historical process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of vowel sounds in unstressed position. Prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliary and modal verbs are usually reduced. Reduction can be distinguished into three types:

1. Qualitative:

At [ǽt - Ət], them [ðem - ðƏm], a [ei - Ə], an [ǽn - Ən], the [ði: - ði before a vowel – ðƏ before a consonant], can [kǽn - kƏn], am [ǽm - Əm]

2. Quantitative:

Me [mi: - mi], be [bi: - bi]

3. Elision (it is signified by apostrophe):

I’m busy [aim bizi], It’s Nick [its nik]

As a result connective words have 2 or more forms: full form which is used in a stressed position, and reduced form which is used in an unstressed position.

Positional length of stressed vowels

The length of a vowel depends on its position in a word. When a vowel is at the end of a word, the sound is the longest (fi:, vi:). It is a bit shorter before a voiced consonant (pi:z, fi:z, li:v, giv). It is the shortest before a voiceless consonant (pi:s, ki:p, kik, pik).

Classification of consonants:

1. The degree of noise:

1. sonorants are made of tone prevailing over noise because of a wide air passage (m, n, ŋ, w, l, r, j);

2. noise consonants are made of noise prevailing over tone. They can be voiced and voiceless. Voiced: b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ. Voiceless: p, t, k, f, Ө, s, h, ∫, t∫.

2. The manner of articulation:

1. Occlusive consonants are made when the air stream meets a complete obstruction in the mouth. They can be divided into 2 groups:

• Occlusive noise consonants (plosives): p, b, k, g, t, d.

• Occlusive sonorants: m, n, ŋ.

2. Constrictive consonants are made when the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream goes through the nose. They can be divided into 2 groups:

   • Constrictive noise consonants (fricatives): f, v, Ө, ð, s, z, h, ∫, ʒ.

   • Constrictive sonorants: w, r, l, j.

3. affricates (occlusive-constrictive) are the sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction (t∫, dʒ).

3. The place of articulation:

1. labial consonants are made by the lips (p, b, m, w).

2. labio-dental are made of lips and teeth (f, v).

3. forelingual are articulated with the tip or blade of the tongue. They can be:

• apical (the tip of the tongue is active): t, d, s, z, n, l, ð, Ө, t∫, dʒ.

• cacuminal (the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the alveolar ridge): r.

• interdental (the tip of the tongue is between the teeth): Ө, ð.

• Alveolar (the tip of the tongue is against the upper teeth ridge): t, d, s, z, n, l.

• Post-alveolar (r),

• Palato-alveolar (the front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate): t∫, dʒ, ∫, ʒ.

4. mediolingual (palatal) – the front part of the tongue is raised high to the hard palate: j.

5. backlingual (velar) – the back part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate: k, g, ŋ.

6. glottal consonants – articulated with the glottis: h.