2076

2) Answer the question:

What power do most renewable energy technologies use? a) Natural processes provide all renewable energy.

b) The sun is power for most renewable energy technologies. c) People put into practice most renewable energy projects and

production.
С
d) The hydrosphere absorbs a major fraction of the incoming radiation.
3) Point out which part of the text (1, 2, 3, 4) includes the answer to the
question:
Why is renewable energy valuable?
a) 1;	b) 3;	c) 4;	d) 2.

4)Identify the main idea of the text.

a)The renewable energy technologies promote people not to live everywhere they want.

b)The Earth climate is affected by the incoming solar radiation.

c)Renewable energy is the kind of energy which is naturally replenished.

d)Renewable energy is vitally important for people.и

GRAVITATION

1.Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies attract with a force proportional to their mass. In everyday life, gravitation is most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to coalesce, and coalesced matter to remain intact, thus accounting for the existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe.

2.Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the Moon in its orbit around the Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow occurs under the influence of a density gradient and gravity; for heating the interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various other phenomena observed on the Earth.

3.Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with electromagnetism, and the nuclear strong force and weak force. Modern physics describes gravitation using the general theory of relativity by Einstein, in which it is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime governing the motion of inertial objects. The simpler Newton's law of

universal gravitation provides an accurate approximation for most physical situations. ИбА

201

1)Define, which statement conforms to the text content.

a)Gravitation is explained by the laws of electromagnetism, the nuclear strong force and weak force.

b)Gravitation plays crucial role in the life of the Universe.

c)Gravitation can change the speed of the falling object.

d)Gravitation doesn’t affect natural phenomena on the Earth.

2)Answer the question:

What determines the necessity of gravitation study by scientists?

a)Scientists consider gravitation to be the main motive power of all natural phenomena taking place on the Earth.

b)There exist some theories of gravitation, the modern approach to this phenomena being not based on the earliest study of nature.

c)Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth in its orbit around the Sun and for various phenomena observed on the Earth.

d)Scientists believe that gravitation is responsible for the existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the universe.Си

3)Complete the statement according to the text.

For the Earth gravitation …

a)is vitally important;

b)plays more important role than for other planets;

c)was a crucial factor only while its formation;

d)allows the objects to attract to each other.

4)Identify the main idea of the text.

a)It is considered that without gravitation there would be no life on the Earth.

b)Due to gravitation the Earth and the other planets are able to orbit around the Sun.

c)Gravitation is a very important natural phenomenon affecting the life of our universe.

d)Due to gravitation various nature phenomena take place on the Earth.бА

HISTORY OF ROBOTICSИ

1. The concept of robots dates back to ancient times, when some myths told of mechanical beings brought to life. Such automata also appeared in the clockwork figures of medieval churches, and in the 18th century some clockmakers gained fame for the clever mechanical figures that they constructed. Today the term automaton is usually applied to these handcrafted, mechanical (rather than electromechanical) devices that imitate the motions of living creatures. Some of the «robots» used in advertising and entertainment are actually automata, even with the addition of remote radio control.

202

2. The term robot itself is derived from the Czech word «robota», meaning «compulsory labour». It was first used by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but lacking human sensibility, being able of performing only

automatic, mechanical operations. Robots as they are known today do not only imitate human or other living forms. True robots did not become Сpossible, however, until the invention of the computer in the 1940s and the

miniaturization of computer parts. One of the first true robots was an experimental model designed by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute in the late 1960s. It was capable of arranging blocks into stacks through the use of a television camera as a visual sensor, processing this information in a small computer.

иtheir operations to some degree in response to changes in that environment. The commercial use of robots is spreading, with the increasing automation of

3. Computers today are equipped with microprocessors that can handle

the data being fed to them by various sensors of the surrounding

environment. Making use of the principle of feedback, robots can change

factories, and they have become essential to many laboratory procedures. Japan is the most advanced nation exploring robot technology. Nowadays robots continue to expand their applications.

1) Define, which statement conforms to the text content.

a) The first true robot was created due to development of mechanics.
	Д
b) Some centuries ago clockmakers found fame for construction of
mechanicalбАfigures.
c) Robotics is an equally developed branch of technology in many
countries of the world.
d) First people began to mention about mechanical things in the 18th
century.	И

2) Answer the question:

What sphere of human activity was the term «robot» used for the first time?

a)It is believed that people have been interested in robotics since ancient times.

b)The Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek used the term «robot».

c)It is known that the term «robot» appeared in the works of a man of

arts.

d)The term «robot» is of the Czech origin meaning «compulsory labour».

3)Complete the statement according to the text.

These days the application of robots is increasing…

a)as there appear new models of robots;

b)because people try to automate their working places;

203

c) because robots use the principle of feedback; d) in order to completely replace people at work.

4) The main idea of the text is …

a) Some countries pay much more attention to the exploration of robot technology.

b) The development of computer technologies affects the development of Сrobotics.

c) During all the period of the history of robotics people have tried to advance this technology.

d) One should differentiate between the terms «automaton» and «robot».

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1.Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.

2.Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electric power distribution and use. It now covers a wide range of subfields including electronics, digital computers, power engineering, telecommunications, control systems, RF engineering, and signal processing.

3.Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with systems such as electric power transmission and electrical machines, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of electronic systems including computers, communication systems, integrated circuits, and radar. From a different point-of-view, electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit electric power, while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to process information.

1)Define, which statement conforms to the text content.и И

a) Alessandro Volta was busy with developing electric devices in the 18th century.

204

b)People began to use electrical engineering on a wide scale in the latter half of the 19th century.

c)William Gilbert managed to prove the difference between magnetism and static electricity.

d)In the USA electronic engineering is not the part of electrical engineering.

2) Answer the question:

What does electrical engineering concerned with mainly?

a)It came into being after commercialization of some ideas in the field of electricity.

b)It deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.

c)It is occupied with studying its difference from electronic engineering.

d)It covers a wide range of subfields including electronics, digital computers and so on.Си

3)Complete the statement according to the text.

There are still different points of view on …

a)the time when scientists began thorough study of electricity;

b)the interrelationship between electric and electronic engineering;

c)the origin of the term electricity;

d)the cause of electrical engineering origin.

4)The main idea of the text is …

a)Electrical engineering is a relatively new field of engineering dealing with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.

b)The study of electricity and the ways of its application has been a subject of scientific interest for four centuries so far.

c)There exist different points of view on the interrelations between electrical engineering and electronic engineering.

d)Though electrical engineering appeared in the latter half of theбА

19thcentury, it finds a wide application in our life at present.

VACUUM

И

1.Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other experimental techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A torricellian vacuum is created by filling a tall glass container closed at one end with mercury and then inverting the container into a bowl to contain the mercury.

2.The quality of a vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Residual gas pressure is a primary indicator of quality, and is most commonly measured in units called torr, even in metric contexts. Lower

205

pressures indicate higher quality, although other variables must also be taken into account.

3. Vacuum became a valuable industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes, and a wide array of vacuum technology has since become available. The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human

Сhealth, and on life forms in general.

1) Define, which statement conforms to the text content.

a) Vacuum is measured in units called torr named after Evangelista иTorricelli who produced the first laboratory vacuum.

b) Evangelista Torricelli developed experimental techniques of producing vacuum using the influence of atmospheric pressure.

c) Industry is not the only application sphere of vacuum technologies.

d) The quality of a vacuum is independent from the indicator of residual gas pressure.

2) Complete the statement according to the text.

A great variety of vacuum technologies have become possible …

a)when incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes began to be applied in industry;

b)because people wanted to use the quality of a vacuum in industry;

c)due to the recent development of human spaceflight;

d)due to invention of laboratory vacuum by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. бА

3) Answer the question:

What are the contemporary spheres of vacuum application?

a)People investigate vacuum capacities to use it more effectively in industry.

b)Nowadays people consider vacuum a perspective space medium.

c)The introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes influenced further research of vacuum.

d)Vacuum is widely adopted nowadays in the domain of human spaceflight.

4)The main idea of the text is …

a)Vacuum has a wide range of applications in industry.

b)Vacuum affects people’s health and other life forms.

c)The capacities of vacuum enable its use for industrial as well as medical purposes.

d)People use vacuum due to its perfect qualities.ИД

206

BASEMENT CONSTRUCTION HINTS

1. Many people find a basement construction as a necessary part of a house building process while others think it does them practically no good. It is largely a matter of what a person is accustomed to. It is true that the volume of space added to a house by a basement is large, and the cost is

Сsmall, but is the space usable and desirable, or is it largely waste?

2. Perhaps the basement construction is needed when you want a rumpus room, or game room, or den, or something of that kind. Then be sure to make the ceiling at least 8 feet high. It is easy to make a dry basement in well- иdrained soil or on high ground where a drain tile can be run around the outside of the basement, but in low, wet ground beware of a basement.

3. Should you build one or two stories? That depends largely on your experience and background and the custom of the locality where you live. This questionбАmust be settled before you begin to plan your house, as it will have a profound effect on your house plan. First, is your lot large enough to get the entire house you want on one floor and still leave room enough for the outdoor activities you contemplate? Do you really want or need an upstairs? Many people like to sleep upstairs, because it gives them a greater feeling of security. If you have always slept upstairs, you feel more exposed on the main floor. By putting high windows in the bedroom you can partly protect yourself from this exposed feeling on the main floor.

4. Most new subdivisions in the West are being built on the one-story plan. Much depends on local conditionsДand customs. In hot dry sections, where it would seem that basements would be ideal, they are seldom used, while in wet, damp sections, where basement construction may be a problem, they are used extensively. This is not to say that you do not need the storeroom any more, though every house needs a storeroom, complete with shelves, hooks, and every convenience to storeИand classify all materials and possessions; 12' x 20' in size, the size of a garage, ought to be large enough for most families, if they carefully scrutinize the things they store to make sure they are worth storing and get rid of the things not worth keeping.

1) Define, which statement conforms to the text content.

a)People usually have no problems when sleeping on the ground floor.

b)The storeroom should be bigger than a garage.

c)An additional storeroom is not necessary if you have a basement.

d)In the West basements are often used in hot dry regions.

2)Answer the question: What factors should be taken into consideration while planning the basement construction in the house?

a)Personal desires and natural environment are the factors which should be taken into account while planning the basement construction in the house.

207

b) Background and the custom of the locality where you live are the factors which should be taken into account while planning the basement construction in the house.

c) Local conditions and customs are the factors which should be taken into account while planning the basement construction in the house.

d) A need for a storeroom is one of the factors which should be taken into Сaccount while planning the basement construction in the house.

3) Point out which part of the text (1, 2, 3, 4) includes the answer to the question:

When do you think is the best time to solve the question of stories?

a) 2; b) 3; c)1; d) 4.

4)Identify the main idea of the text.

a)It is better to build a house with a basement in well-drained soil or on high ground.

b)The issue of building a basement and any other construction depends on the local conditions and personal experience.

c)Some people feel uncomfortable sleeping on the main floor.

d)Some people feel uncomfortable sleeping on the main floor.и

EARLY MODERNISM

1.With the Industrial Revolution, the availability of newly-available building materials such as iron, steel, and sheet glass drove the invention of new building techniques. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction.

2.This kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire as “Dark satanic mills”. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction, followed in 1864 by the first glass and metal curtain wall. A further development was that of the steel-framed skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan.

3.Around 1900 a number of architects and designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents

(classicism or Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta inИбА

208

Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. The work of some of these were a part of what is broadly categorized as Art Nouveau ("New Art").

1) Define, which statement conforms to the text content.

a) At the beginning of the 20th century some architects combined Сconventional architectural styles with new technologies.

b) At the beginning of the 20th century modernism developed mostly in the United States of America.

c) Industrial architecture completely changed the landscape of southern иBritain giving it a severe look.

d) New building techniques invented during Industrial revolution led to the invention of new building materials

2) Answer the question:

Why was Charles Bage’s mill called fireproof?

a)Because there was a fire-extinguishing fence around the mill.

b)Because the materials used in his design were rather expensive.

c)Because the materials used in its construction do not subject to combustion.

d)Because he was known to have invented fireproof materials.

3)Complete the statement according to the text.

A number of first iron mills collapsed because of …

a)the bad quality of the metal used in the construction of the mills;

b)the lack of the knowledge of behaviour of iron as a construction material;

c)natural disasters which were frequent in those areas;

d)the disproportion of the mills caused by poor design.

4)The main idea of the text is …

a)The first attempts to use new building materials such as iron were not always successful resulting in crushing of the building; though there were positive examples such as Charles Bage’s mill with fireproof design.

b)Industrial architecture of the 19th century completely changed the landscape of northern Britain, especially Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire which were described by people as «Dark satanic mills».

c)Industrial revolution brought about the birth of new building materials which led to the development of new building techniques which later resulted in a new style called Art Nouveau characterized by combination of traditional precedents and new materials.

d)At the beginning of the 20th century a number of architects and

designers around the world began developing new solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new technological possibilities.ИбА

209

EARLY RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE

1. Russian borrowed its early architecture, like its icon painting, from Byzantium. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries early towns were built on defensive sites on high river banks. From afar were visible low white walls with towers, churches with brilliant domes and bell towers. The finest

Сexamples of traditional architecture can be seen in the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Suzdal, Bogolyubovo and Sergiev Posad.

2. In Russia, timber has always been the most natural building material. Russian carpenters decorate the diverse structures they were building with иbeautiful carved decorations above windows and porches. One can see such decorations on log-cabins, fortress towers, huge cathedrals, churches and monasteries.

3. Wooden and masonry architecture developed side by side in medieval Russia, oneбАstimulating and gratifying the love for verticality and slenderness, the other satisfying a yearning for massiveness, monumentality, and lavish decoration in the expression of power and splendour. The few remaining examples of the ancient wooden structures are now in Rostov and also in the museums of wooden buildings in Novgorod, Kostroma and Suzdal. These examples show the skill and gift of their builders to harmonize the building proper with the landscape. Wooden architecture predominates in Northern Russia and in some of the older settlements and towns of the Siberia, such as Tyumen.

1) Define, which statement conforms to the text content.

a)Wood engraving as decorative element is one of the character traits of Russian architecture.

b)Wooden architecture prevailed in Southern Russia.

c)Masonry architecture was more developed than wooden one.

d)In Russia, stone has always been the most natural building material.Д

2) Answer the question:

What was early Russian architecture derived from? a) It was derived from oriental countries.

b) It was derived from the local sources. c) It was derived from ancient Greece.

И

d)It was derived from Byzantium.

3)Complete the statement according to the text.

The early Russian builders managed to…

a)preserve wooden buildings for centuries;

b)combine the buildings and nature in harmonious unity;

c)Encourage the love for massiveness;

d)develop masonry architecture over wooden one.

210