49. The structure and organization of School education in the usa

The United States does not have a national school system. Each of the 50 states has separate laws regulating education. From state to state, some laws are similar while others are not. Each child in the United States is guaranteed up to 11 years of education irrespective of the child's race, religion, sex, physical disabilities, ability to speak English and citizenship. Although some members of Congress have advocated permitting the states to deny public education to children of illegal immigrants, this proposal has not become law.

There are 2 types of schools in the country - public, supported by the state, and private. Private schools are very often controlled by churches or religious groups. Consequently, in these schools religious subjects are included into the curriculum along side with the traditional academic subjects. These schools are fee-paying and enroll about 10 percent of the nation's schoolchildren. Almost 90 percent of American children attend free of charge public elementary and secondary schools which are financed from local and state taxes. Some parents prefer homeschooling and educate their children themselves.

Traditionally, elementary school includes kindergarten and ends after the 8th grade. In some places, however, it may end after the 6th grade, in this case the students attend middle school, or junior high school, from grades 7 to 9. Secondary or high school traditionally begins at grade 9(16 years) and occasionally at grade 10 and finishes at grade 12.

Though Americans have no National Curriculum certain subjects are taught in the majority of elementary and high schools throughout the country. Almost all elementary schools provide instruction in mathematics, language arts (reading, grammar, composi­tion and literature), penmanship (style or technique of writing by hand), science, social studies (history, geography, citizenship and economics), computer, music, art, physical culture and, occasionally, a foreign language.

Most high schools offer a similar list of core subjects: English, mathematics, sci­ence, social studies, computer and physical culture. The amount of time allocated to each subject differs from school to school. In addition to required courses — for ex., a year of American history, literature, etc. — high schools offer electives. Popular electives include performing arts, driver's education, cooking, and "shop" (use of tools, carpentry, and repair of machinery).

Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of the elementary school. If he fails a course, he repeats only that course and not the work of the entire year. Students must complete a certain number of courses in order to receive a diploma, or a certificate of graduation. Most young Americans graduate from school with a high school diploma upon satisfactory completion of a specified number of courses. Students are usually graded from A (excellent) to F (failing) in each course they take on the basis of performance in tests given at intervals throughout the year. Students receive «report cards» at least twice a year which indicate the grades they have received in each of the subjects. High schools maintain a school «transcript» which summarizes the courses taken and the grades obtained for each student. The elementary schools tend to be small. The high schools are generally larger and accommodate pupils from four or five elementary schools. A small town generally has several elementary schools and one high school. The school year is nine months in length, beginning early in September and sometimes a shorter one in spring.

№ 50.Standardised testing in the usa: SAT, ACT

Most colleges and universities require applicants to take a standard entrance exam: the American Collegic Test (ACT) or the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Historically, the SAT has been more popular among colleges on the coasts and the ACT more popular in the Midwest and South. SAT must be taken in your senior year in high school. It is given on a certain day in December or January at a local college. The test takes a whole day. SAT consists of 3 major sections: Critical Reading, Mathematics, and Writing. Every student gets a book with questions. The book is divided into sections, with about 70 questions each. Each of the three subjects has a max­imum of 800 points. Total scores are calculated by adding up scores of the three sections. The lowest score for getting into university is 550. The questions range from easy, medium, and hard. Easier questions typically appear closer to the beginning of the section while harder questions are towards the end in certain sections. The Critical Reading section of the SAT is made up of three scored sections, two 25-minute sections and one 20-minute section, with varying types of questions, including sentence completions and questions about short and long reading passages. The mathematics section consists of three scored sections. There are two 25-minute sections and one 20-minute section.The writing section of the SAT includes multiple choice questions and a brief essay. The essay subscore contributes about 30% towards the total writing score, with the multiple choice questions contributing 70%.

Some students who perform poorly on the SAT find that they perform better on the ACT . The ACT test has historically consisted of 4 tests: English, Math, Reading, and Science reasoning. The ACT is more widely used in the Midwestern and Southern United States. Subject test scores range from 1 to 36.The English, mathematics, and reading tests also have subscores ranging from 1 to 18. (The subject score is not the sum of the subscores.) The first section is the 45-minute English test covering usage/mechanics and rhetorical skills. The 75-question test consists of five passages with various sections underlined on one side of the page and options to correct the underlined portions on the other side of the page.The second section is the 60-minute, 60-question math test with 14 covering pre-algebra, 10 elementary algebra, 9 intermediate algebra, 14 plane geometry, 9 coordinate geometry, and 4 elementary trigonometry.The 35-minute, 40-question reading section measures reading comprehension in four passages (taken and edited from books and magazines) one representing prose fiction (short stories and novels), another representing social science (history, economics, psychology, political science, and anthropology), a third representing humanities (art, music, architecture, dance), and the last representing natural science (biology, chemistry, physics, and the physical sciences), in that order.The science reasoning test is a 35-minute, 40-question test. There are seven passages each followed by five to seven questions. The writing section is 30 minutes long. All essays must be in response to a given prompt. The prompts are about a social issue applicable to high school students. This test has no effect on the overall composite score.

№ 51.Higher Education

Higher education is greatly valued in the United States as more than 60 per cent of Americans now work in jobs where a high school diploma is insufficient. There are four types of institutions that offer higher education:1)Junior or community colleges (two years of studies), assigned to meet local community needs. Financed by local authorities, these colleges charge reason­able tuition fees. Graduates may either start working or continue their education in four-year colleges or universities.2)Technical training institutions offering courses from six months to four years in various technical skills such as design, business, computer programming, accounting, etc.3)Colleges (four years of studies) (not part of the university) offering BA(bachelor of arts), BS (bachelor of science) degrees 4)Universities offering diverse options;Colleges for those who want to complete BA or BS course after the com­munity college; Graduate schools for those who want to complete MA (master of arts) or MS(master of science) course; Doctoral degree courses (PhD — Doctor of Philosophy) .

Many students need financial assistance to attend college. Some students get feder­al loans to be able to complete higher education. These loans must be repaid after gradu­ation. Some students get grants which they don't have to reimburse upon completion.A college student takes courses in four or five "major" subjects (the area of study in which he or she chooses to specialize). In addition they choose electives (courses that are not required but chosen by the student). The student's progress is controlled through tests, term or course papers, and course exams. Each component is marked, which is relevant for the final grade. A student's record is compiled from the grades in each course. The highest mark is A, the lowest — D, E or F means failure. In order to receive a degree a student has to earn about 120 credits. Credits are earned by attending classes, completing assignments and examinations.

The academic year usually starts in September and is divided into two terms, four and a half months each. Summer classes are offered to those who decide to upgrade their results or take additional courses.A first year student is called a freshman, second year — sophomore, third year — junior, fourth year — senior. All of them are known as undergraduates. Those who have completed four years of studies are called graduates.1.Undergraduate/Bachelors program:

Generally, it takes four years of undergraduate study to earn a Bachelors degree.The 4 year undergraduate program consists of:1st Year is called Freshman Year.2nd Year is called Sophomore Year.3rd Year is called Junior Year.4th Year is called Senior Year.2. Graduate Study: It is what we call as postgraduate education. All master degrees are graduate degrees.Masters Degree: This degree is usually required in fields such as Engineering, Library science, Business Administration or Social work. Mostly masters degree is a 2 year program, but some subjects like journalism, may need just one year.A Doctorate degree (Ph.D.) usually takes five to seven years to complete. Unlike undergraduates, graduate students begin specialized study from the first day.3. Professional/Vocational Training Programs: These are many specific courses/training programs for professional subjects. Some of them include Printing technology, Orthoptics, fashion and textile technology.

№ 52. The types of American universities

There are 1950 universities in the USA. Most public universities are state universities founded and operated by state government entities; Public institutions are financed by the state, but students still have to pay for their education. However, stu­dent fees are considerably lower than in private institutions. The oldest being the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and The University of Georgia, although the overall oldest school now designated as public is The College of William & Mary. Every U.S. state has at least one public university to its name, and the largest states have more than thirty. Many U.S. public universities began as teacher training institutions and eventually were expanded into comprehensive universities.

In the U.S., most prestigious universities and colleges are private, operated as educational and research nonprofit organizations. While most liberal arts colleges are likewise private, there are also some public liberal arts colleges. Some private universities are closely affiliated with religious organizations (the University of Notre Dame) and some are directly operated by religious organizations (such as Brigham Young University).Legally, private universities may not discriminate but generally have a somewhat free hand in setting admissions policies. Tuition fees at private universities tend to be higher than at public universities though many private universities offer financial aid as well.

Religiously affiliated colleges and universities defy a monolithic description. They are as diverse as their religious traditions and the higher education scene in the United States. Although most are liberal arts colleges with enrollments between 800 and 2,000 students, church-related higher education also includes large research universities (Boston University, Notre Dame,), medical colleges, professional schools, two-year colleges, theological seminaries, and Bible colleges. Many religiously affiliated colleges regularly are highly ranked in various "best colleges" ratings in the United States. About 25 per cent of colleges and universi­ties are owned by religious groups. Among the nearly 1,000 colleges and universities with religious affiliation are 65 institutions affiliated with the Jewish faith. Yeshiva University, founded in 1886 in New York City, is recognized as the oldest and most comprehensive educational institution under Jewish auspices in America.

The Ivy League is an athletic conference comprising eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The term is most commonly used to refer to those eight schools considered as a group. The term became official, especially in sports terminology, after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954, when much of the nation polarized around favorite college teams. In addition, Ivy League schools are often viewed by the public as some of the most prestigious universities worldwide and are often ranked amongst the best universities in the United States and worldwide. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, Princeton University, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University. Seven of the eight schools were founded during America's colonial period; the exception is Cornell, which was founded in 1865. The Ivies are all in the Northeast geographic region of the United States. All eight schools receive millions of dollars in research grants and other subsidies from federal and state government. Ivy League university financial endowments range from Brown's $2.01 billion to Harvard's $26 billion, the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world.

№ 53. The types of degree courses in American universities

Each college & university has its own curriculum. There are courses that every student has to take in order to receive a degree. The first two years mostly cover general subjects. A junior year student must choose a "major" field of study. They must take a certain number of courses in their field. The minor program in American Studies is open to all undergraduate students. Students must take two courses from each of the groups listed and one elective course chosen from any of the groups. The students are free to choose their particular electives from among a wide range of courses offered by their university, as long as the students possess the prerequisite knowledge to understand the subject matter being taught. Elective courses are also offered in the third and fourth years of university, though the choice is more restrictive and will depend upon the particular major the student has chosen. The number of credits awarded for each course relates to the number of hours of work involved. At the undergraduate level a student generally takes about five three-hour-a week courses every semester. (Semesters usually run from September to early January and late January to late May.) Credits are earned by attending lectures (or lab classes) and by successful­ly completing assignments and examinations. One credit usual­ly equals one hour of class per week in a single course. A three-credit course in Linguistics, for example, could involve one hour of lectures plus two hours of seminars every week. Most students complete 10 courses per an academic year and it usually takes them four years to complete a bachelor's degree requirement of about 40 three-hour courses or 120 credits.

In the American higher education system credits for the academic work are transferable among universities. A student can accumulate credits at one university, transfer them to a second and receive a degree from there or a third university.

№ 54. History of American welfare and public assistance

Public assistance consisted of support and contributions from friends, neighbors and religious groups prior to the Great Depression in the 1930s. Until this time, there was no formal federal program to provide assistance to those in needs. Those who found themselves in dire need of food or shelter relied heavily on the kindness of others to provide the necessary resources. It was not uncommon in that time period for neighbors and family to help each other out pooling resources or lending a hand. In 1933, Franklin Roosevelt rolled out the New Deal which provided social and welfare services aimed at relieving the effects of poverty and homelessness in the United States. Unemployment insurance and workman's compensation were established to meet the needs of working American's who were injured on the job or lost jobs through no fault of there own. These programs continue to operate in basically the same fashion as they did in the 1930s. Aid to families with dependent children (AFDC) was established as part of the New Deal. The goal of the program was to provide temporary assistance to single mothers with children. Cash benefits were provided to meet the basic living expenses of the household.

The Social Security System receives far more funding and is dispersed to larger numbers. This program was developed in 1935 to serve the needs of US workers who were injured, disabled or had reached retirement age. Children with disabilities receive funding for living expenses and children under 18 receive survival benefits in the event that a parent dies. Spouses also receive survival benefits.

In the 1960s, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson introduced the Food Stamp Act to meet the needs of America's hungry. The Medicaid program was established to meet the needs of Americans who could not afford access to health care. Both were targeted for children and single mothers but also provided assistance to the poor and disabled.

In 1996, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act changed the face of welfare in the U.S. Benefits were restricted and time limits were placed on how long a person could qualify for assistance. A five-year maximum was established, and recipients who received cash benefits were required for the first time to either locate paying work or work for those benefits under a volunteer program that was overseen by the state.

Welfare tolls are down from 14.2 million in 1994 to 7.2 million in 1999. Welfare reform efforts have reduced the number of individuals and families receiving benefits from the state, but there is much debate over whether it has actually improved the lives of the poorest children.

№ 55. Health & medical care in the usa

Health care in the United States is provided by many separate legal entities. Health care facilities are largely owned and operated by the private sector. Health insurance is primarily provided by the private sector, with the exception of programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, TRICARE, the Children's Health Insurance Program and the Veterans Health Administration.

More money per person is spent on health care in the United States than in any other nation in the world, and a greater percentage of total income in the nation is spent on health care in the U.S. than in any United Nations member state except for East Timor. the U.S. has a higher infant mortality rate than most of the world's industrialized nations. The USA's life expectancy lags 42nd in the world, after most rich nations, lagging last of the G5 (Japan, France, Germany, UK, USA) and just after Chile (35th) and Cuba (37th). The USA's life expectancy is ranked 50th in the world after the European Union (40th). The World Health Organization (WHO), in 2000, ranked the U.S. health care system as the highest in cost, first in responsiveness, 37th in overall performance, and 72nd by overall level of health (among 191 member nations included in the study). A 2008 report by the Commonwealth Fund ranked the United States last in the quality of health care among the 19 compared countries.

The United States is alone among developed nations in not yet having a universal health care system.

Roughly two thirds of urban hospitals in the U.S. are non-profit hospitals and the balance evenly divided between for-profit hospitals and public hospitals. The urban public hospitals are often associated with medical schools. For example, the largest public hospital system in America is the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, which is associated with the New York University School of Medicine. Although public hospitals constitute the greatest percentage of non-federal hospitals, care in the U.S. is generally provided by physicians in private practice and private hospitals. Just over 59% of Americans receive health insurance through an employer, although this number is declining and the employee's expected contribution to these plans varies widely and is increasing as costs escalate . A significant number of people cannot obtain health insurance through their employer or are unable to afford individual coverage. The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that 15.3% of the U.S. population, or 45.7 million people, were uninsured at some time in 2007. More than 38% of the uninsured are in households earning $50,000 or more per year. The census also states that 16.7% of the 39.6 million on Medicaid incorrectly reported they were uninsured. A few states have taken serious steps toward universal health care coverage, most notably Minnesota, Massachusetts and Connecticut, with recent examples being the Massachusetts 2006 Health Reform Statute and Connecticut's SustiNet plan to provide quality, affordable health care to state residents. In 2005, the United States spent 15.2% of GDP on health care, or US$6,347 per capita. Of that, approximately 45% was government expenditure.

№56. Government programs of health insurance in the usa

In the federal government of the United States, the United States Department of Health and Human Services is the executive department responsible for overseeing healthcare legislation. It is managed by the Secretary of Health and Human Services, a member of the Cabinet. The agencies of the Public Health Service are the Health Administration, which regulates health care to people without health care, the Food and Drug Administration, which certifies the safety of food, effectiveness of drugs and medical products, the Centers for Disease Prevention, which prevents disease, premature death, and disability, the Agency of Health Care Research and the Agency Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, which regulates hazardous spills of toxic substances.

Medicare is a social insurance program administered by the United States government, providing health insurance coverage to people who are aged 65 and over, or who meet other special criteria. The program also funds residency training programs for the vast majority of physicians in the United States. Medicare operates as a single-payer health care system. The Social Security Act of 1965 was signed into law on July 30, 1965, by President Lyndon B. Johnson as amendments to Social Security legislation. Medicare is partially financed by payroll taxes imposed by the Federal Insurance Contributions Act. In the case of employees, the tax is equal to 2.9% (1.45% withheld from the worker and a matching 1.45% paid by the employer) of the wages, salaries and other compensation in connection with employment. In general, all persons 65 years of age or older who have been legal residents of the United States for at least 5 years are eligible for Medicare. However, if neither they nor their spouse have paid Medicare taxes for a minimum of 10 years (40 quarters), then they must pay a monthly premium to be enrolled in Medicare. Benefits. Medicare has four parts: Part A is Hospital Insurance. Part B is Medical Insurance. Medicare Part D covers prescription drugs. Medicare Advantage plans, also known as Medicare Part C, are another way for beneficiaries to receive their Part A, B and D benefits. All Medicare benefits are subject to medical necessity.

The original program was only Parts A and B. Part D was new in January 2006; before that, Parts A and B covered prescription drugs in only a few special cases.

Medicaid is the United States health program for eligible individuals and families with low incomes and resources. It is a means tested program that is jointly funded by the state and federal governments, and is managed by the states. Among the groups of people served by Medicaid are certain eligible U.S. citizens and resident aliens, including low-income adults and their children, and people with certain disabilities. Poverty alone does not necessarily qualify an individual for Medicaid. Medicaid is the largest source of funding for medical and health-related services for people with limited income in the United States. Because of the aging Baby Boomer population, the fastest growing aspect of Medicaid is nursing home coverage.

№ 57. Social security programs in the usa