Political Aspects of international Relations

12.ограничивать потребительский спрос

13.увеличивать доходы национального правительства

14.с намерением регулирования торговли 15.ограничения правительства, связанные со здоровьем и безопасностью,

правила ведения торговли, и внутренняя налоговая политика 16.ставить поддерживаемые отрасли промышленности в несправедливые

по отношению к другим торгующим нациям условия преимущества

20th-Century Trends

1.облагать более низкими налогами привилегированные нации

2.источник многих международных экономических диспутов

3.либерализировать тарифные и нетарифные торговые барьеры

4.сгладить препятствия на пути международной торговли

5.устроить ряд специально организованных раундов многосторонних торговых переговоров

6.подготовить сцену для

7.иметь общие экономические и политические интересы

8.назначать льготные тарифы

9.поддерживать программы развития торговли, чтобы способствовать восстановлению экономик, разрушенных во время Второй мировой войны

10.отменять таможенные правила торговли 11.устанавливать единые правила на импорт из государств, не

принадлежащих союзу 12.иметь целью сокращение торговых барьеров среди стран – членов

союза 13.двойник этой группы

14.быть распущенным

15.устранение торговых ограничений

Task 2. Translate World Trade into Russian in written form without a dictionary.

Task 3. Discuss advantages of international trade and the necessity of government restrictions in pairs.

Task 4. Translate the following sentences into English using your active vocabulary.

1.Международная торговля дает возможность государству специализироваться в тех товарах, которые она может производить наиболее дешево и эффективно.

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2.Торговля также дает возможность стране потреблять больше, чем она могла бы произвести, если бы зависела только от своих ресурсов.

3.С основанием империй и колоний европейскими странами, торговля стала орудием правительственной политики.

4.Богатство страны измерялось в наборе товаров, которыми она обладала.

5.Форма международной торговли под названием меркантилизм была обычной вещью в 16 и 17 веках.

6.Международная торговля начала принимать свою современную форму с образованием национальных государств в 17 и 18 веках.

7.В 1776 году шотландский экономист Адам Смит предположил, что специализация в производстве приводит к росту производительности.

8.Полвека спустя английский экономист Дейвид Рикардо разработал принцип сравнительного преимущества.

9.Принцип сравнительного преимущества проявляется, если каждый торговый партнер имеет продукт, который принесет более высокую цену в другой стране, чем дома.

10.Международная торговля ведет к более эффективному и возросшему мировому производству, таким образом позволяя странам потреблять больший по объему и более разнообразный набор товаров.

11.Возросший международный спрос на товары приводит к более широкому производству и использованию сырья и труда, что в свою очередь ведет к росту внутренней занятости.

12.Конкуренция от международной торговли может также заставить местные фирмы стать более эффективными посредством модернизации и инновации.

13.Некоторые государства экспортируют только для того, чтобы расширять свой внутренний рынок или помогать экономически отсталым секторам во внутренней экономике.

14.В последние годы международная торговля всегда рассматривалась как средство, способствуюшее росту национальной экономики.

15.Так как международная торговля является неотъемлемой частью национальной экономики, правительственные ограничения иногда необходимы, чтобы защитить национальные интересы.

16.Действие правительства может происходить в ответ на торговую политику других стран или к нему могут прибегнуть, чтобы защитить специфические отрасли промышленности.

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17.С возникновения международной торговли нации стремятся достичь и поддерживать благоприятный баланс торговли – то есть экспортировать больше, чем импортировать.

18.В попытке увеличить резервы своей собственной валюты и сократить количество, находящееся в руках иностранцев, страна может попытаться ограничить импорт.

19.Такая политика имеет целью контролировать количество валюты, которая вывозится из страны.

20.Один из методов ограничения импорта – это просто закрыть въезд в страну.

21.Количественные ограничения известны как квоты.

22.Квоты налагаются как самое быстрое средство остановить или даже полностью изменить негативное направление в балансе платежей страны.

23.Квоты также используются как самое эффективное средство защиты местной промышленности от иностранной конкуренции.

24.Самый обычный способ ограничения импорта сегодня - это наложение тарифов, или налогов, на импортируемые товары.

25.Более высокая цена ограничивает потребительский спрос и эффективно ограничивает импорт.

26.Налоги, собираемые с импортируемых товаров, также увеличивают доходы национального правительства.

27.Хотя нетарифные барьеры не обязательно устанавливаются государством с намерением регулирования торговли, они тем не менее имеют тот же результат.

28.Такие нетарифные барьеры включают ограничения правительства, связанные со здоровьем и безопасностью, правила ведения торговли и внутреннюю налоговую политику.

29.Прямая правительственная поддержка различных местных отраслей промышленности ставит поддерживаемые отрасти промышленности в несправедливые по отношению к другим торгующим нациям условия преимущества.

30.Страны собирают дифференцированные тарифы (облагая более низкими налогами привилегированные нации) и проводят другие ограничительные торговые мероприятия как орудие борьбы с недружественными нациями.

31.Торговая политика стала источником многих международных экономических диспутов.

32.После Второй мирой войны международные организации были созданы, чтобы продвинуть торговлю, либерализируя тарифные и нетарифные торговые барьеры.

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33.Генеральное соглашение по тарифам и торговле, подписанное 23 некоммунистическими государствами в 1947 году, было первым соглашением, имеющим целью сгладить препятствия на пути международной торговли.

34.С 1947 года страны ГАТТ устроили ряд специально организованных раундов многосторонних торговых переговоров.

35.Это подготовило сцену для его замены как всемирного торгового органа Всемирной торговой организацией.

36.Появилось несколько торговых сообществ, чтобы развивать торговлю среди стран, которые имеют общие экономические и политические интересы или расположены в определенном регионе.

37.Внутри этих торговых групп назначаются льготные тарифы, которые оказывают предпочтение странам – членам этих групп над другими.

38.Некоммунистические страны поддерживали программы развития торговли, чтобы способствовать восстановлению экономик, разрушенных во время Второй мировой войны.

39.В таможенном союзе, известном как Бенелюкс, таможенные правила торговли среди трех его членов были отменены, и единые правила были установлены на импорт из государств, не принадлежащих союзу.

40.Европейское экономическое сообщество, основанное в 1957 году, имело целью сокращение торговых барьеров среди стран – членов союза.

41.Коммунистическим двойником этой группы был Совет экономической взаимопомощи.

42.Торговля внутри каждого экономического блока будет поддерживаться устранением торговых ограничений, но возможно потребуются трудные переговоры, чтобы сократить торговые барьеры между торговыми блоками.

ASPECT 8. DIPLOMATIC MACHINERY.

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Diplomatic Machinery

The conduct of relations with other countries has three requirements: (1) an establishment in the home country to formulate policy and instruct personnel sent; (2) an establishment abroad from which contacts are made in the foreign country; (3) personnel to make the system work. Over the centuries these three requisites for diplomacy became increasingly professional and bureaucratic. By the 17th and 18th centuries, domestic foreign affairs establishments were fairly well developed. In the 19th century corps of diplomats increasingly were chosen by competitive examinations. Although ambassadors were often selected on a political basis, they found highly professional staffs waiting for them at their embassies abroad, and they dealt with other skilled staffs when they reported to their home offices.

Departments of Foreign Affairs

Government agencies that deal with foreign affairs are usually called the ministry or department of foreign or external affairs. Such a department is headed by the foreign secretary. In democracies, the foreign secretary is always a political appointee who is selected by the nation's leader. Drawing on the expertise within the department and its establishments abroad, the secretary advises the head of state on matters of foreign policy, helps formulate and coordinate policy, and administers the agency over which he or she presides. At times, the foreign secretary is also directly involved in negotiations with other nations. A small number of politically appointed undersecretaries and assistant secretaries aid in running the department.

Departments of foreign affairs usually are divided into geographic and functional divisions. The former consists of bureaus for major geographic areas that are then broken down into smaller divisions and, ultimately, into

“country desks”. Desk officers are career diplomats who specialize in various aspects of the country to which they are assigned. Instructions to and reports from embassies abroad are handled first by the country desks. The functional division deals with problems or issues that do not appropriately fall under the domain of any one country: trade, international organization, human rights, intelligence, public information, international law, and passports and visas. Coordination of policy between geographic and functional divisions is a continually perplexing problem.

Departments of foreign affairs also have an administrative section that is in charge of running the agency. This section deals with internal matters such as budget allocations, personnel recruitment and management, training, and logistics.

In an age of interdependence and total diplomacy, foreign affairs departments must coordinate their activities with the foreign activities of other government

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agencies. Treasury departments, for example, are increasingly involved in negotiations over trade and money. Agricultural departments are concerned with foreign trade and world food problems. Defence establishments are involved in supporting foreign governments abroad and training their armed forces. Intelligence agencies provide heads of state with alternate sources of information about other countries. In some cases, a foreign minister has trouble merely keeping informed of all the activities the nation is engaged in abroad.

Foreign Missions

The embassy abroad, or foreign mission, is headed by an ambassador assisted by a career diplomat who serves as deputy or first secretary. The deputy secretary oversees and coordinates the work of the staff and assumes the responsibilities of the mission as charge d'affaires whenever the ambassador is away or incapacitated or is between ambassadorial assignments.

Organization

A mission is organized into a series of functional sections that observe, report, and deal with issues in their respective areas. Most missions contain sections for political affairs, economic and commercial affairs, information and cultural affairs, consular affairs, and administrative matters. In addition, a mission usually includes a number of attaches from other government departments. Military, air, and naval attaches have traditionally been assigned to foreign missions, but agricultural, commercial, labour, and cultural attaches are becoming increasingly common.

Missions are staffed largely by foreign service officers, with the exception of the attaches who are drawn from their respective agencies back home. The secretaries and clerical staff come from a separate civil service corps. Citizens of the host country may be hired as translators or for nonsensitive jobs.

Activities

The activities of a diplomatic mission are extremely varied. They range from such serious tasks as negotiating issues of great political significance and reporting and commenting on important events in the foreign country to meeting with foreign students, arranging itineraries of exhibits about life in the home country, and issuing visas.

In addition to their diplomatic and political chores, missions are also in charge of the consular work of the home government. Consular services are concerned with the economic and commercial relations between nations. Originally, diplomatic and consular chores were kept strictly separate because early theorists felt that national interests should not be “tainted” by private commercial matters. Thus, two separate services—diplomatic and consular—

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usually existed. Today all major countries have combined these two services, and a single corps of professional civil servants serves in both areas.

Consular work involves a variety of activities. Consuls issue birth, death, and marriage certificates to citizens residing or travelling in the foreign country. Consular officers also regulate shipping, aid their country's citizens when they travel on business or as tourists, and report on economic and business conditions abroad. Activities are often carried out in consulates located in major trading and commercial cities as well as in the capital city.

The Foreign Service

Today, most nations staff their foreign services with career civil servants who are selected on the basis of competitive examinations. Until recent times, however, foreign service personnel were political appointees, often from noble or wealthy families, who could afford the considerable expense that a life of diplomatic activity entailed.

In the 1850s Great Britain and France instituted competitive examinations for posts in the diplomatic corps, but low salaries restricted the number of persons who could afford to enter the service. In Great Britain all candidates had to guarantee a personal income of 400 pounds for at least the first two years. The examinations employed by the European powers were extremely difficult, requiring fluency in at least two foreign languages. Since World War II, salaries and allowances have been increased so that persons of all means may enter the diplomatic service. Although career officers dominate the diplomatic corps, there is usually room for some noncareer personnel.

Many nations appoint distinguished citizens who are not career officers to serve as ambassadors. Usually, ambassadors are distinguished men and women from business, law, politics, or academic life. Career officers predominate numerically.

Diplomatic Conventions

The modes and conventions of diplomacy are highly stylized and formal. Language always tends towards understatement, and emotion-charged words are taboo. The etiquette and manners of diplomatic meetings are carefully prescribed. The privileges and immunities of diplomats are found in conventions and treaties that have evolved over a long period. Whenever etiquette is breached, a diplomatic “rebuff” occurs. Although this formality and ceremony has an air of make-believe, it serves a practical purpose: It allows diplomats to deal with issues of war and peace in a calm and unemotional manner. In the tense hours of crisis, a cool head, tact, and good humour are necessary.

Protocol

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Detailed and universally accepted conventions exist concerning most of the formal ways in which countries interact. In the early days of the nation-state system, the departure of an ambassador was a ceremonial event, as was the ambassador's reception by a head of state.

Because ambassadors personally represent the heads of their governments, the relations among ambassadors within a country have always involved issues of prestige. Thus, such details as where an ambassador rode in a procession or which ambassador entered a room first assumed great significance.

Such issues plagued European courts until they were resolved at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 and, more recently, at the Vienna meetings to draft a Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961. As a result of these meetings, diplomats were divided into three classes: (1) ambassadors, legates, and papal nuncios who are always accredited to heads of state; (2) envoys, ministers, and other persons accredited to heads of state; (3) charges d'affaires who are accredited to ministers of foreign affairs. Only members of the first class represent their nation's leader. Precedence among representatives in a capital is now based on seniority within its diplomatic corps. The most senior member of that corps is designated the doyen, or dean. The doyen usually represents the entire diplomatic corps at ceremonial functions and in matters of diplomatic privileges and immunities. The most concise digest of the protocol of diplomacy is the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, consisting of 53 short articles completed under UN auspices.

Privileges and Immunities

From the earliest times, privileges, immunities, and courtesies were extended to visiting heralds and envoys. Currently the privileges and immunities of diplomats are highly developed and universally accepted.

For centuries, the territory on which a foreign mission stood was considered an “island of sovereignty” of the home state. Under the Vienna Convention of 1961 this is no longer the case. The premises of missions are inviolable, however, and host states must accord full facilities to enable diplomatic missions to perform their functions. Citizens of the host state may not enter a mission without the consent of its senior official. Missions are immune from search, requisition, and attachment, and nations have a special duty to protect any mission against intrusion or damage. This long-accepted principle was violated in Iran in November 1979, when a group of Iranians invaded the United States Embassy and held some 50 staff members hostage for 14 months.

Free communication between the mission and the host government must be permitted. Diplomatic couriers may not be detained, and diplomatic bags may

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not be opened or detained. Host governments must also secure these rights against their own citizens if necessary.

Diplomatic agents and their staffs are not liable to any form of arrest or detention; diplomats are immune from criminal laws and, in most cases, from civil and administrative jurisdiction as well. They are exempt from all direct taxes in the host state. Immunity from the laws of a host state does not exempt diplomats from the laws and jurisdiction of their home states, however. Those who commit crimes are almost always sent home as personae non gratae. Diplomats enjoying their privileges and immunities are duty bound to respect the laws and regulations of the host state and to refrain from interfering in its internal affairs.

In the event of war, the host state must grant facilities to enable diplomats from belligerent nations to leave the country. If diplomatic relations are broken off with another nation, the host state must still respect and protect the mission premises. When relations are broken off, the countries in question usually entrust the custody of their missions and interests to some third party acceptable to both.

Language of Diplomacy

Until the 17th century, Latin was the language of diplomacy because it was the universal language of all educated Europeans. From the 17th century on, however, French increasingly became the language of diplomacy because of the preeminence of France in Europe, the precision of the language, and its use as the “court language” throughout Europe.

The US entry into World War I marked the rise of English as a second language of diplomacy. During the interwar period, the records of the League of Nations were kept in English and French. After World War II, the framers of the UN sought to create a five-language system. Simultaneous translations of French, English, Russian, Spanish, and Chinese take place at all meetings. Most UN documents, however, are published only in French, English, and Spanish. When treaties or conventions are drafted, the parties designate one language—usually French or English—as the basis for any discussions about meanings or interpretations.

Diplomatic Negotiations

Although negotiations have traditionally been left to professional diplomats, very important negotiations are increasingly being undertaken by specially selected envoys or foreign ministers and by heads of state. Recent examples of this trend were the “shuttle diplomacy” of the US secretary of state Henry Kissinger in the Middle East and the personal involvement of ex-President Jimmy Carter in negotiating an accord in 1994 between the United States and North Korea over nuclear proliferation. Resident diplomats, however, still do

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almost all the day-to-day negotiating and interacting with leaders of other states.

The problem of deciding what practices and tactics are most effective in negotiating is difficult. The German-American political scientist Hans J. Morgenthau in his book Politics Among Nations (1948) perhaps best summed up the ideal of modern diplomacy: (1) diplomacy must be divested of its crusading spirit; (2) the objectives of foreign policy must be defined in terms of the national interest and must be supported with adequate power; (3) diplomacy must look at the situation from the point of view of other nations;

(4) nations must be willing to compromise on all issues that are not vital to them; (5) the armed forces are the instrument of foreign policy, not its master;

(6) the government is the leader of public opinion, not its slave.

Working on the text.

Task 1. Read the text above and find the English equivalents to the following Russian phrases. Reproduce the situations from the text where these expressions are used.

Diplomatic Machinery

1.необходимые условия для дипломатии

2.дипломатический корпус

3.послы

4.посольства

Departments of Foreign Affairs

1.министерство иностранных дел

2.министр иностранных дел

3.по вопросам внешней политики

4.отделы (бюро) для основных географических районов

5.профессиональные дипломаты

6.попадать в поле деятельности какой-либо одной страны

7.отвечать за управление учреждением

8.министерства финансов

9.министерства обороны

Foreign Missions

1.наблюдать и координировать работу персонала и принимать на себя ответственность за миссию (посольство)

2.наблюдать, делать сообщения и решать вопросы в соответствующих областях

3.быть традиционно приписанным к иностранным миссиям

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