Exercises

I. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words:

1. Calculable, expressionless, egg, teacher, dining-room, ear-ring.

2. :unsatisfactory, freedom, extraordinary, door-handle, looking-glass.

3. : friendship, conference, delicious, sick-leave, sweetheart.

4. :worker,overestimate, ice-cold, daydream, armchair, skyscaper, newspaper.

5. :governmental, memorize, notebook, student, dancing-hall, sleeping-car.

6. .inactive, supernatural, wisdom, rider, goodness, housekeeper, looking-glass.

7. :mistake, upstairs, miner, marriage, organization, pen-holder, baby-sitter.

8. :disturbance, fruitfulness, handkerchief, lady-bird, writing-table.

9. :obedience, student, amazement, misunderstand, introduce, saleswoman, handicraft

10. :air, wrist-watch, snowball, freedom..

Affixation

Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. On the morphemic level every word formed by means of affixation has only one root-morpheme, which is its semantic center and one or more derivational affixes. For instance, the words displease and realism have each only one root-morpheme and one derivational affix—the prefix dis- and the suffix -ism, whereas the noun reappearance consists of the prefix re-, the root-morpheme appear- and the suffix -ance. On the derivational level derived words comprise a primary stem (the stem being in itself either a simple, a derived or a compound stem) and a derivational affix. For instance, violonist==n+ist (a simple stem), friendliness==(n+ -ly)+-ness (a derived stem), chairmanship=(n+n)+ -ship (a compound stem).

Derived words whose stems consist of a root-morpheme and a derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation, e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion, etc. Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining possess the second degree of derivation, etc.

There are two types of prefixes and suffixes , namely convertive and non-convertive. If the prefix or suffix not only modifies the lexical meaning of the stem it is added to but transfers the word to another part of speech we speak of convertive prefix or convertive suffix. Here are some examples of convertive prefixes: to begulf (cf. gulf n), to debus (cf. bus n), to embronze (cf. bronze n), pre-war a (cf. war n), etc. Let us consider some examples of convertive suffixes careless a—cf. care n; suitable a—cf. suit v; goodness n—cf. good a, etc. If the prefix modifies the lexical meaning of the stem but the derived word belongs to the same part of speech as the primary stem we can speak of non-convertive prefixes and non-convertive suffixes. let us consider some examples of non-convertive prefixes: unusual—cf. usual; indefinite—cf. definite; discomfort—cf. comfort, etc. As for non-convertive suffixes father— fatherhood, horseman—horsemanship, king- kingdom. etc

In Modern English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is typical of verb formation.

We can also add that the convertive ability is more characteristic of suffixes while prefixes are most often non-convertive.

Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes.

Prefixes are classified according to the meaning they convey to the derived word. The following groups of prefixes may be distinguished:

1) prefixes of negative meaning such as: un-, in-, dis- and some others, e.g. ungrateful (cf. grateful); unemployment (cf. employment); incorrect (cf. correct); disadvantage (cf. advantage), etc.

It may be mentioned that the prefix in- occurs in different phonemic shapes depending on the initial sound of the stem it is affixed to; in other words, the prefixal morpheme in question has several allomorphs, namely il- (before [l]), im- (before [p,m]), ir- (before [r]), in- in all other cases, e.g. illegal, improbable, immaterial, irreligious, inactive, etc.

2) prefixes denoting reversal or repetition of an action such as un-, dis-, re- and some others, e.g. to unfasten (cf. to fasten), to disconnect (cf. to connect), to rewrite (cf. to write), etc.

3) prefixes denoting space and time relations such as fore-, pre-, post-, over-, super- and some others, e.g. to foresee (cf. to see), pre-historic (cf. historic), post-position (cf. position), to overspread (cf. to spread), superstructure (cf. structure), etc.

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.

There are different classifications of suffixes. The first one is based on the part of speech principle.

1) noun-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in nouns, e.g. -er, -dom, -ness, -ation, etc., cf. teacher, Londoner, freedom, brightness, justification, neutralization, etc.

2) adjective-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adjectives, e.g. -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, etc., cf. agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous, etc.

3) verb-suffixes, e.g. -en, -fy, -ize, cf. darken, satisfy, harmonize, etc.

4) adverb-suffixes, e.g. -ly, -ward, cf. quickly, eastward, etc.

A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by the suffix. Proceeding from this principle suffixes are classified into various groups within the bounds of a certain part of speech. For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:

1) the agent of a verbal action, e.g. -er, -ant, cf. baker, dancer, defendant, etc.;

2) appurtenance, e.g. -an, -ian, -ese, etc., cf. Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, etc.;

3) collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery (-ry), etc., cf. freightage, officialdom, peasantry, etc.;

4) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie, -let, -ling, etc., cf. birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squirreling, wolfling, etc.

Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to the lexico-grammatical character of the stem the suffix is usually added to. Proceeding from this principle one may divide suffixes into:

1) those added to verbal stems, e.g. -er, -ing, -ment; -able, etc., cf. speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.;

2) those added to a noun-stem, e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc., cf. handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.;

3) those affixed to an adjective-stem, e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc., cf. blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.

Sometimes we can speak of homonymy of derivational affixes. For instance, the adverb-suffix -ly added to adjective-stems is homonymous to the adjective-suffix -ly affixed to noun-stems, cf. quickly, slowly and lovely, friendly; the verb-suffix -en attached to noun- and adjective-stems is homonymous to the adjective suffix -en tacked on to noun-stems, cf. to strengthen, to soften and wooden, golden;

It is very important to speak about the synonymy of derivational affixes. You know that in the course of its long history the English language has adopted a great many words from foreign languages all over the world. One of the results of extensive borrowing was the appearance of numerous derivational affixes, which have the same meaning as the native suffixes. For instance, the suffix -er of native origin denoting the agent, is synonymous to the suffix -ist of Greek origin which came into the English language through Latin in the XVI century. Both suffixes occur in nouns denoting the agent, cf. teacher, driller; journalist, botanist, economist, etc.

There is also a considerable number of synonymous prefixes in the English language. un-, in- , dis-, unfavourable, impossible, discontinuous, etc.

Derivational affixes can be also classified into dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words: they have so fused with the stem of the word as to lose their independence completely. It is only by special etymological analysis that they may be singled out, e.g. -d in deed, seed; -le, -l, -el in bundle, sail, hovel; -ock in hillock; -lock in wedlock, -t in flight, gift, height. It is quite clear that dead affixes are irrelevant to present-day English word-formation, they belong in its diachronic study.

Living affixes may be easily singled out from a word, cf. the noun-forming suffixes -ness, -dom, -hood, -age, -ance as in darkness, freedom, childhood, marriage, assistance, etc., or the adjective-forming suffixes -en, -ous, -ive, -ful, -y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful, stony, etc.

All living derivational affixes of Modern English fall into two basic classes - productive and non-productive word-building affixes. Productivity is the ability of a given suffix to make new words. The main characteristic feature of productive affixes is their ability to create an unlimited number of new words which all who speak English find no difficulty in understanding. Productivity of derivational affixes should not be identified with their frequency of occurrence in speech. Frequency of occurrence is characterized by the fact that a great number of words containing a given derivational affix are often used in speech, in particular in various texts.

The investigation of affixes from the point of view of their origin shows that there can be found native and foreign affixes, e.g. the suffixes –ness, -ish, -dom, -hood, -ship, -ly, -ing, -less, -ful, and the prefixes be-, mis- un-, out-, under-. over- are of native origin. whereas such suffixes as –ation, -ment, -able, -al, -age, -ance, -ist, -ism, -ess and prefixes like dis-, ex- re- are of foreign origin.