- •1) Phonetics as a science:
- •2)Experimental phonetics: Methods of investigation (The direct observation method; The experimental method; The distributional method; The semantic method).
- •3)The aspects of speech sounds.
- •4)Physical properties of sounds.
- •5)The organs of speech and their functions: Active and passive organs of speech; The articulatory mechanism and its work.
- •6)Articulatory and physiological classification of English vowels in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
- •7)Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
- •8)Segmental and suprasegmental phonemes: The definition of the phoneme; The aspects of the phoneme; The functions of the phoneme.
- •9) Phonemes and Allophones: The principal allophone; The subsidiary allophones (types); Distinctive and non-distinctive features of phonemes; The invariant of the phoneme.
- •10)Connected speech: Lexical and function words; Strong and weak forms; Neutralization; Assimilation (types); Dissimilation; Accommodation; Elision; Intrusion; Linking (Fillers).
- •11)Syllable: Definition; Parts of syllable; Types and functions of syllables; The structure of the syllable.
- •12)The principal theories of syllable formation and syllable division.
- •13)The accentual structure of English words: Word stress (its types and functions); Sentence stress; Degrees of word stress; The factors that determine the degree and the place of stress.
- •15) Transcription and transliteration. Types of transcription.
- •16)Phonostylistics: The components of extralinguistic situation; The factors which result in phonostylistic varieties.
- •17)Intonation: Definition; The components of intonation and their functions.
- •18)The methods for recording intonation patterns in writing and advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
- •19)The most important nuclear tones in English. Simple and complex tones. High and low falling tones. The types of scales in English.
- •20) The most important elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of an intonation group (An intonation pattern; The characteristics of an intonation group).
- •21)The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation and their graphical representation on the staves or in the line of text itself.
- •22) Territorial Varieties of English pronunciation. The orthoepic norm. The national language of England. Literary English. Rp and ga.
- •23)Spread of English.
- •24)English-based pronunciation standards of English.
- •25)American - based pronunciation standards of English.
2)Experimental phonetics: Methods of investigation (The direct observation method; The experimental method; The distributional method; The semantic method).
Instrumental methods deriving from physics and physiology were introduced into the Ph in the second half of the 20th century. The introduction of machines for the measurements and for instrumental analysis has resulted in their use for detailed study of many of the phenomena which are present in the sound wave or in the articulatory process at any given moment. Today there are no areas of phonetics in which useful work is done without combining these 2 ways of ph investigation. There are some principal methods of investigation which can be subjective or objective. Dickushina distinguishes 3 principal methods. 1) the direct observation. 3 modes of ph analysis: by ear, by sight, by muscular sensation. It’s the oldest and the simplest methods, most ready-available. It consists of observing the movements/position of one’s own sp organs while pronouncing various sp sounds as well as in analyzing one’s own kinesthetic sensations. Investigations by this method can be effective only if people are trained to observe even the slightest movements. 2) the linguistic method. The aim is to determine in what way the phonetic features are used in a l to convey a certain meaning. –Distributional method. It is mainly used by phoneticians of structuralism, who consider it possible to discover the phoneme of the l by grouping all the sounds into phonemes acc to the laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution: 1. Allophones of different phonemes occur in the same ph context;2. Allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same ph context. – Semantic method is based on a phonemic rule that phonemes can distinguish w-s and morphemes when opposed to one another. 3) the experimental method. It’s based upon the use of special apparatus and instruments. Artificial palate is used to ascertain the exact tongue-palate contacts in articulating sounds. Laryngoscope – a small circular mirror which is introduced into pharynx far back as possible. It helps to observe larynx, glottis and vocal cords. Magnetic tape recorder has gained wide popularity. It’s used for recording speech and sounds and then reproducing them exactly. Spectrograph is used for obtaining spectrograms of speech sounds mainly for the purpose of harmonic analysis. Intonograph measures automatically fundamental tone of the vocal cords, the duration of speech/ pauses.
3)The aspects of speech sounds.
Speech sounds are of complex nature and have different aspects. Dickushina: acoustic, biological, linguistic. Leontyeva: acoustic, physiological/articulatory, functional. Vasilev: acoustic, articulatory, functional, auditory.
Biological. Speech sounds are phenomena resulting from the activity of speech organs. Antropophonics- a part of phonetics that is concerned with the work of organs and their ability to form sp sounds. Due to Pavlov’s work we can see that this is due to activity of cerebral hemispheres that a man uses lang. The ability of a man to respond by means of speech is what differentiates him from any other animals and makes him superior.
Sounds can be analyzed from acoustic point of view. Like any other sounds speech sounds, which are caused by the work of an articulatory organ, are communicated to the air in the form of sound waves. Sp sounds have pitch, intensity and timbre, likewise musical tones and noises may be distinguished among them.
Linguistic aspect. Sp them the subject of linguistic observation. It’s very important to determine in what ways sp sounds can function as significant sound units or phonemes. And to determine its significant role in the l.