Q 7. Verbals.

Infinitive.

The properties of a noun and verb.

Verbal characteristics:

• tense (realtive)

• voice (relative)

• direct object (aspect)

• + adverb

Nominal characteristic:

• subject/ object

• meaning – action as an object.

Forms:

• +/- ‘to’

• 6 forms: 4 active; 2 passive (simple/ indefinite and perfect)

Functions:

• notional self-positional syntactic part of the sentence (grammatical free function)

e.g. begin to kill

• notional constituent of a complex verbal predicate built up around a predicator verb (half-free usage)

e.g. will do; shall kill

• notional constituent of a finite conjugation form of the verb

# functioning like a noun the infinitive denotes an action (corresponding process by an abstract form) can be changed into a different word/ noun

e.g. he decided to move;

what did he decide?

Forms of the infinitive are divided into marked (with particle ‘to’) and unmarked (without ‘to’ – bare infinitive).

Particle ‘to’ – inf marker can be used in isolation representing the whole construction omitted in the text.

Gerund.

Combines verbal and nominal characteristics:

- + adverb; - subject, object

- direct object - process as an object – meaning

- tense (relative) - + possessive pronoun

- voice (relative) - + preposition

Many linguists claim that it’s not necessary to distinguish between PI and gerund because it’s one and the same –ing form.

(+ Russian linguists: Plotnikov, Barhudarov)

Arguments:

• Attribute before a noun – PI and gerund have different meanings

e.g. dancing girl – girl’s dancing

dancing hall – a hall for dancing

the transformation shows that the meaning is different.

• syntactical position of an object

e.g. do you mind me doing this? – action is emphasized

do you mind my doing this? – ‘doing’ is the main element of the construction.

Participle I.

Verbal and adjectival characteristics:

- tense, voice - qualifying processual name

- attribute (NB: participial phrases – post position)

- adverbial modifier

- part of a complex object

- predicative

There are words containing suffixes ‘ing’ and ‘ed’

# heart-breaking

PI as gerund and infinitive is often used in semi-predicative constructions in which it’s used to form a potential predicative centre.

Participle II

Verbal and adjectival:

- tense - qualifying processual name

- voice - attribute

- etc - predicative

- adverbial modifier

- object (objective participial construction)

As a predicative PII is close in meaning to passive voice (action/ state).

Adverb.

• notional part of speech serving to express a property or an action, circumstances in which an action occurs, property of a property.

We exclude the words expressing speaker’s attitude to the action (as perhaps, certainly, like) – modal words.

Morphological structure:

- simple

- derivative – likewise, wards, ways

- compound

- composite – at last

According to their meaning:

- qualitative # fast

- circumstancial # near, suddenly

A limited number of adverbs have morphological degrees of comparison formed in a suppletive way or by means of suffixes.

Well – better – the best

Syntactical functions:

• adverbial modifier

• predicative

• attribute

Some adverbs coincide in forms with prepositions or conjunction.

Phrasal Verbs.

Verb+ post-verbal element which coincides in form with preposition or adverb

# to get off

Second element is viewed in different ways.

Theory by Zheluktenko:

These formations are analytical verbs, second element – post-positive prefix, because the correspondence is found in English.

# to bring up – upbringing

It’s not a verb, it’s a prefix.

It can’t explain all the cases.

The Phrase

1. Types of Syntactical Relations within a phrase

2. classification of phrases.

Q-n1.

Syntax – phrases and sentences, texts, etc.

Phrase – a group of words connected by syntactical relations. = word-group, word combination.

Phrases are used to denote complicated objects, possess the function of polynomination.

Sentences are used to name situations. The most important feature of sentences is predication, as well as intonation, and communicative intention.

Classification based on morphological principle:

1. N+N: subtypes: a) N in the common case + N in the common case – denotes one idea as modified by another in widest sense of the word (depends on the position); b) N in the possessive case + N in the common case – meaning of possession.

# Dog house – if we change their positions the meaning will change.

2. Adj + N

3. V + N – two types of relation: a) action and an object which undergoes it

b)N may denote measure; its syntactical function would be different (adv modifier of degree)

# to walk a mile

4. V + Adv actions and their property

5. Adv + Adj property of a property

6. Adv + Adv etc

7. N + prep + N

Sometimes list contains N + V (a predicative phrase) which is a special one b/c it’s a sentence

Classification by Blokh

He divides phrases into groups basing on status of words.

1. Phrases consisting of notional words only

2. Phrases consisting of notional and functional words

3. Phrases consisting of functional words only

Phrases type1.

Serve to denote different phenomena more complicated than the ones denoted by words; possess nominative value.

Phrases type2.

Denote abstract relations; as for their nominative value they are equivalent to a separate word. They are dependent, can’t be used without a context.

# to him

Phrases type3.

Equal to separate functional words, are used as connectors or specifiers of notional elements.

# such as; up to

Usually according to syntactical relations phrases are divided into two types:

If notional words in a phrase are related to one another on an equal rank, they are called equipotent.

If one element depends on the other, the phrase is called dominational.

Equipotent connection in word combinations is realized either syndetically or asyndetically.

# bed and breakfast

Plain, laughy

Dominational connection implies that one constituent is dominating and may be called head-word, dominant, kernel one.

The constituent that is subordinate an adjunct or expansion.

These two types of relations are also called coordination and subordination.

Classification based on the syntactical functioning:

1. Predicative

2. Adverbial

3. Attributive

4. Objective

Type one: N + V (subject + predicate)

Type two: V + N

Type three: N + N; Adj + N

Type four: V + Adv; Adv+ Adj

Attempts were made to combine these two classifications.

Predicative relations differ from domination or subordination. It was called interdependence.

Ways pf expressing syntactical relations:

• agreement;

• government;

• joining.

Agreement – a dependent element takes form of a dominant one.

# this book

It’s not a very popular way in English.

Government – a head word requires a dependent word after it in a special form which doesn’t coincide with it.

# at him

V + pers pronouns; Prep + pers pronouns.

Joining – without changing the forms elements are close to each other through in reality it doesn’t happen every time.

# read quickly

Classification by Bloomfield.

Phrase – any group of words syntactically organized

Basing on their functioning in a larger unit (sentence):

1. Endocentric – one component can function in a bigger structure in the same way as the whole phrase. # poor John! – John ran away!

2. Exocentric – one element cannot replace the whole combination in a bigger structure.

# John runs.

Further division of endocentric phrases is based on the type of syntactical relations between phrase constituents. Bloomfield distinguishes subordinate relations and coordinative ones.

Further division of exocentric phrases is based on another principle. He distinguishes predicative and prepositional phrases.

Classification which takes into account the inner structure of the phrase:

• phrases with headword;

• without headword

With headword – It corresponds to the classification based on the syntactical relations. Phrases with headword possess a dominating element and dependent elements, basing on the position of dependent ones the phrases may be:

- progressive - regressive

Headword takes the initial position. Headword takes the last position.

# a friend of mine # nice dress.

Basing on the part of speech the headword belongs to:

• nominal;

• adjectival

• verbal

• adverbial.

Classification by Charles Hockett:

Basing on the position of the headword:

I. With Headwords:

1. Headword in postposition;

2. Headword in preposition.

3. Headword in the centre of the phrase # as good as that

4. Headword is framing the phrase # did not go

II. Without a Headword:

Elements may be connected by different types of syntactical relations.

Dependent Independent

Need additional context Can be identifies without any additional context

# him a letter # bed and breakfast

Semantic and Syntactical Relations within a Phrase or Sentence.

Qs.

1. Theory of Valency

2. Semantical and Syntactical Relations between elements

3. Theory of Ranks

Q1. Theory of Valency

Valency – French linguist Tenger (in his works) borrowed it from chemistry and brought to linguistics.

Each element has a number of connections.

Tenger referred this term to the verb and its dependents. According to him, verbs play central role in the sentence. All the other elements depend on the verb.

He replaced subject, object with actants.

Valency according to him is the number of actants a verb can have.

Adverbial modifiers are called circumstants. They are excluded from the sphere of verb valency.

He based on the lexical meaning of the verb. The number of actants depends on the meaning of the verb.

In Russian linguistics (Vinogradov, Peshkovskyi) were developing the theory of combinability which is related to valency and it takes into account both semantic and syntactical properties of verbs. It may be optional and compulsory.

Dependent elements have compulsory combinability if the headword has the so called strong elements.

# a verb requires a noun in the proper form both semantically and syntactically

If it’s weak -> dependent elements are optional.

# he’s at home (compulsory)