144 Meaning-postulates, 102, 126 7

and inference, 221

and sense-relations, 124 30 meaningful sentences, and meaningless

sentences, 1 31 52 meaningfulness, 12,72

grammatically and acceptability, 132 4

and meaninglessness, 215 21

of sentences, 134 8 medium, 9, 34, 246 medium-neutral terms, 34 medium-transferable, 36 Menomini, 191 mental grammar, 73

mental lexicon, 73, 100 mental models, 231 mentalistic theory of meaning, 40 metalanguage, 611,77

definition, 7

technical and everyday metalanguage, 324 6 metalinguistic expressions, 80-1 metalinguistics, 1-45 metaphor, 136, 280 4

bibliography, 346 metaphorical extension, 59 60 metaphorical interpretation, 280-4

and context of situation, 290 metaphysical dualism, 336-7 metonymy, 136 mistranslation, 274 modal, use of term, 255 modal auxiliaries, 319 modal component of (actuality, 255 modal expressions, modality and mood,

327 35 modal logic, 118, 1 74 5, 254, 302, 335

bibliography, 345 modal particles, and conventional

implicature, 274-5 modal verbs, 179 80 modality, 255, 293, 327

bibliography, 345

and indexicality, 233

modal expressions and mood, 327 35

and quantification, 328-9, 335

and subjectivity, 274

and temporality, 31819 model theory, 224 5, 232-3, 294, 341-2 modulate(tl), 14, 181 Montague, Richard, 199,201,208,221,

228 9

Montague grammar, 199, 209, 221-6,

229 33,294 5 comparison with Ghomskyan

generative grammar, 222 4 comparison with Katz-Fodor theory,

221 2 and truth-conditional semantics,

224 6 Montague semantics, 160, 329

bibliography, 345 mood, 74, 176, 202, 255, 293 bibliography, 345 clause-type and sentence-type,

176-82

connexion with sentence-type,

177--80. 332

as a grammatical category, or as mood of a proposition, 255-6 and interrogativity, 191-3 modal expressions and modality,

327-35 relationship with tense, 275, 319,

332-3

and sentence-type, 253 tense and aspect, 195-7 uses of term, 327 and verbal inflection, 1 79-80 morpheme-based grammar, 48, 66, 72 morphologically synthetic languages,

31,313

morphology, 105; bibliography, 345 morphosyntactic identity, 56 morphosyntactic properties of a word,

24 morphosyntactically distinct forms,

53 morse-code, 34

naive realism, 90-1, 98, 324 names, 295 narrower scope, 175 native speakers, 134-5, 308-9

difference between homonymy and

polysemy, 58-60 intuitive judgements of meaningfulness, 148 unconscious rules and conventions,

9-10 natural kind expressions, theory of

(Putnam and Kripke), 92-3 natural kinds, 76 7, 89-90, 91-6, 325 natural languages, 6

descriptive and expressive powers of,

209

formal semantics of, 201 naming in, 295 semantic structure of, 209 spalin-temporal deixis in, 306-7 without tense, 31 2 natural necessity, 121 2 natural sign, 3 near-synonyms, 60 2 necessarily, uses of term, 121 necessarily true or false proposition,

117,118 necessity, 327-9, 333-5

definition of, 329 negation, 150,162, 169-76 bibliography, 345 prepositional, 328 negation-operator, 109, 1 73 negative indefinite pronouns, 172 neo-Gricean pragmatics, 277, 280,

292

bibliography, 345 neuropsychology, 73, 211 nominal negation, 171 nominalism, 82, 92 non-arbitrariness, 13-15 non-conventional behaviour, 13 non-declarative sentences, 185, 193-8,

224

non-deictic information, 307-10 non-descriptive meaning, 44, 64-5,

130

non-detachability, 289 non-factual significance, and emotivism,

144-5 non-human communicative behaviour,

12-13

non-indicative sentences, 224 non-inflecting languages, 67 non-intentional behaviour, 13 non-isolating synthetic languages, 31 non-lexical meaning xv, 104 non-linguistic semantics, 11-16, 101 non-natural metalanguages, 9 non-progressive aspectual distinction,

195 non-propositional meaning, xiii, xiv,

8,44,203,291-2 neglect of, 336, 338 non-verbal component of natural

language utterances, 10,14, 36 non-words, 46 notational conventions, 9-10

for distinguishing word form and

meaning, 23-30 noun classes, bibliography, 345 noun-headed noun-phrases, 296-7 noun-phrases (NP), 296 7

quantified, 300-1

nuclear extension, 94, 96-7, 116 number, 74

object-words, and dictionary-words, 83 objective deontic interpretation, 330

370 Index

Index 371

objective epistemic interpretation, 329,330

objective modality, 329 30,333 4

objectivism, 336, 338

of the world, 1 19,232

Ogden,G.K.,86

Old English, 180

one-place predicates 112

one-to-one correspondence, 10, 142,229

onomatopoeic, 13

ontological assumptions, 4, 142, 148,

188,281-2,308 ontology, relationship with semantics,

82,323-5

opaque contexts, 230 1 open-class word-forms, 66 optative sentences, 176, 181 ordinary-language metalinguistic

statements, 10-11 ordinary-language philosophy, 43, 140,

236-7

ordinary-metalanguage, 22, 324-6 orthographic form, 53 orthographic identity, 30 ostension, 83, 304 ostensive definition, 83 5, 94, 304

paradigmatic sense-relations, 124 paradoxes of implication, 167-8 paralinguistic features, 14, 15, 19,

256,340

paralinguistic subcomponent, 36 />arok,20,21,234 partial homonymy, 55 8 partial synonymy, 60 2 particles, 313 parts of speech, 68 past tense, 56, 31415

and non-past tense, 319 past-participle form, 56 Peirce, C.S., 303

type/token distinction, 49, 53 perfective aspect, 323 4 performance xiii, 21 2, 35, 234, 236 performative utterances, 144, 184,

238 9

performative verbs, 248 51 person, 74 personal names, one-to-one

correspondence with their bearers, 142

personal pronouns, 302, 303 4, 305,

306,307,309 persons, distinguished from individuals,

257

phatic act, 245

phenomenal attributes, 85, 88, 94 philosophical semantics, 6

bibliography, 346 philosophy, 232-3 bibliography, 346 and word definitions, 83-9 philosophy of language xiii, 5, 185, 272 phonetic identity, 30-1, 243-4 phonetics, 9-10, 248 phonic act, 245 phonological form, 53 phonological identity, 30 1 phonological representations (PR),

211,212

phonology, 105, 222 phrasal expressions, 50, 51 phrasal negation, 290 phrase-structure ambiguity, 207 phrases, 50 picks out, 228 place-names, 142 plain English, pseudo-simplicity of

xv-xvi, 54

pluperfect tense, 314-15 plus sign, 129 point of reference, 227 polarity, 170

politeness, 252, 279, 291, 300 polysemy, 48, 58, 266

compared with homonymy, 58 60 Popper, Karl, 141 popular etymology, 59 posed, 254 positivism, 281 possibility, 327 9, 333 5

definition of, 329 possible worlds, 118 19,122,169,

209,225,226 33,295, 329 accessibility between, 341 and entail men t, 117 24 tense-operators as indices to, 316 17 uses of term, 231-2 possible-world semantics, 199, 232 post-Bloomfieldian structuralism, 65,

66,105 6 Postal, P.M., 186 postpositions, 326

pragmatics, 8, 22, 44, 202, 233, 238,

252,276,286,307,342 bibliography, 345 distinction from semantics xii-xiii,

2H3, 290, 308

pre-rnodern linguistics, 102 predicate calculus, 318 predicate logic, 295 predicate-negation, 1 70 predicates, 73, 295 prepositions, 326 present tease, 57, 313, 314 present-tense operators, 316 presuppositions, 189-90, 276, 280,

298 9

primary deixis, 310 primary performatives, 238, 239 primary tense, 318 principle of co-operation, 277 process, 21-2 process-sense, 35, 235 product-sense, 35, 235 productive rules, 51 products of a system, 18, 20, 21-2 progressive aspectual distinction, 195 projection-rules 209, 215, 219 21

and selection-restrictions, 215-21 promises, 237-8, 248-9, 251, 257 pronouns, 296

negative indefinite, 172

reference of, 302-11 proper names, 295

relationship with the entities to which

they refer, 142-3 properties, essential and accidental,

99 100

property-denoting words, 1 12 prepositional content, 147, 215

aspect and,322

and context, 266-7

propositions and, 141-4,268

and sentence-meaning. 103, 153-98,

234 prepositional meaning xiii, 8, 44,

63 5

propositionalizing, 271, 331, 336 propositions, 44, 103. 117 18, 141

compared with utterar ce-inscriptions, 241 2

criteria for, 141

and propositional content, 141-4, 268

relationship with sentences, 141-4

truth and falsity of, 327-9 prosodic contour, 36, 45, 165, 270,

340 relationship with grammatical

structure, 181-2 prosodic features, 14, 256 prosodic structure, 156-7, 171, 181-2,

253,256

of spoken English, bibliography, 345 prosodic subcomponent, 36 prototypes, 94, 96 prototypical sense, 116 proximate tense, and non-proximate

tense, 314, 315

proximate-tense operators, 316 proximity, in deixis, 310 psycholinguistics, 97, 100, 211, 248, 309 psychological semantics, 6 psychology, 73 punctuate(d), 14,181 punctuation marks, 10, 14 pure deixis, 307 8 pure tense, 318 purporting, 143 4 Putnam, Hilary, 92 3 Putnam-Kripke natural-kind

expressions, 121

quality, 277, 278-9, 300 quantification, and modality, 328-9,

335

quantified noun-phrases, 300-1 quantifiers, 287-8, 296, 335

aspect and,326

universal and existential, 328 quantity, 277-8 questions, 38, 176,251

statements and directives, 253-7 Quine,W.V., 123,281 quotation-marks, 9, 10

rationalism, 86

re-definition, 8

reading, suggestions for further, 343-6

realism

naive, 90 1,98, 324

philosophical, 82, 90 1,92 recursive negation, 169 70 refer to,79,295, 299 reference, 9, 76, 78 80, 293, 294-302, 325

372 Index

Index 373

reference (continued)

distinguished from denotation, 78-80, 228-9

and existence, 299

mediated by denotation and context, 228-9

and reference range, 268

and sense, 204, 225 referential meaning, 44 referential opacity, 301 referential potential, 268 referential range, 294 referential theory of meaning, 40,

7fj--6, 78-9 reflexivity, 7 regiment, 7, 8 regimentation, 7- 8 Reichenbach, Hans, 140 reification, 325 6

relatedness of meaning, 28 9,58 60 relation, 102,277,279 relative tense, 314 15 relevance, 168, 2B<> relevance theory, bibliography, 345 relevant, 264, 283 remote tense, and non-remote tense,

314,315

remote-tense operators, 316 represented, 119 restricted variable, 187 9 reversed-polarity interrogative*, 187 rhetic act, 245 rhetoric, 65

rhetorical question, 181 2 rhythm, 10, 171 Roget, P.M., Thesaurus, 60, 86 Romance languages, 19, 180 rule-to-rule hypothesis, 159 60,

207-8,230 Russell, Bertrand, 67, 83 4, 85, 86, 88,

107, 135,208 Russian, 412, 67, 166, 275, 296, 309

aspect in, 320, 323 Ryle, Gilbert, 135, 140, 145

saliency, out-of-context, 267 salvaveritate, intersubstitutability, 230 Sapir, Edward, 90, 97, 106 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 90, 97, 106 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 19, 90, 124, 234 saving the appearances, 92, 185, 198, 202, 204 9

scalar implicatures, 288 scope

of expressions, 207

of interrogativity, 189 90

of negation, 173 5 Searle, J.R.,236 second-order count nouns, 325 second-order entities, 326 7 second-order reference, 325-6 secondary deixis, 310 1 1, 332 secondary grammatical category, 74 selection-restrictions, 209, 216 17, 218

and projection-rules, 21521 self, 337-9

self-expression, 45, 337-40 self-image, 45 semantic acceptability, 37 semantic entailment, 121 3 semantic fields, 102 semantic markers (Katz-Fodor), 220 semantic neutrality, 331 semantic prototypes, theory of, 77,

96 101

semantic representations (SR), 209, 211,212,219

criticisms of, 220-1

and deep structure, 209 15 semantic rules, 215 semantically unrelated, 28 semanticity, 12, 13 semantics

broad and narrow definitions, 8

distinguished from pragmatics xii-xiii, 283,290, 308

in the narrow sense, 8

relationship with ontology, 323-5 semi-grammatical elements, 313 semiotic semantics, 104 semiotics, 303 sense, 8, 76, 80 1

distinguished from denotation, 77 82, 93, 100-1,204

and reference, 204, 225 sense-component, 108, 219 20, 223 sense-relations, 79 80, 102, 124

and meaning-postulates, 124-30 sentence

uses of term, 243

uses of term in abstract and concrete

senses, 258-9, 260-1 sentence-fragments, 261

sentence-identity, 156 sentence-kernel, 205, 211 sentence-meaning, 8, 33, 105-6 conflicts with utterance-meaning,

181-2

distinguished from utterance-meaning, 34 40,44-5, 144, 171, 259,340-1 distinguished from word-meaning,

33 4

the formalizaiion of, 199 233 integration with lexical meaning, 103 and lexical meaning, 43 logical priority over word-meaning,

69 71, 103 and propositional content, 103,

153-98,201-2,203,234 sentence-negation, 290 sentence-radical expression, 205 sentence-semantics, xv, 125

bibliography, 344-5 sentence-type, 176, 202

clause-type and mood, 1 76-82 connexion with mood, 1 77-80, 253 distinguished from mood, 332 sentences

classes of, 38-9 distinguished from utterance-inscriptions, 246 distinguished from utterances xiii,

32 40, 71,234-40 meaningful and meaningless, 131-52 and non-sentences, 37 propositional content xiv relationship with clauses, 161-2 relationship with propositions, 141-4 relationship with utterances, 260 Serrano, 191

set-theoretic function, 112 set-theory. 111 12, 228 sign, 3 signals, 35 signifies, 3 simple sentences, 157

and composite sentences, 157-62 single quotation-marks, 24, 33, 108,

262

Sinn(Frege),204, 225 Siouan family of languages, 178, 181 situation, 270

technical use of the term, 322 situations, 324

Slavonic languages, 320, 323

social and expressive meaning, 275, 276,

291-2

social meaning, 45 social pragmatics, 238, 292 socialization, 257 socio-cultural bias, 132 3, 291 socio-expressive meaning, 45, 64-5,

256-7,309-10

sociolinguistics, 133, 252, 309 sortal categories, 297 8 sortal presupposition, 298 sound, and meaning, 21112 South-East Asian languages, 309 Spanish, 19,41,42, 186,309 spatial reference, modelling of temporal

reference on, 326 7

spatio-temporal deixis, 304-7, 310, 31 1 speaker see locutionary agent speech act, use of term, 235-6, 245 speech acts, 235 6

and illocutionary force, 234-57 speech acts theory (Austin), 43, 145, 234 57,265,292, 339

compared with truth-conditional

semantics, 257 spoken language, 9, 23, 181-2

and written language, 36-7, 236 spoken text, and written text, 258 stand for, 79 Standard English, 7 statements, 38, 176, 251-2

questions and directives, 253-7 stem-form, 25 stress, 10, 156-7 stress-pattern, 14, 36, 244 strict implication, 169, 281 strings, 36, 156,243

subsets of, 137

structural approach, 102-30 structural lexical semantics, 102 structural linguistic semantics, 104 structural linguistics, 102, 105-7 structural morphology, 102 structural phonology, 102 structural semantics, 103-7

definition, 104-5

use of term, 105 structural word, 66 structuralism, 90-1, 102, 103, 104,

105 structure, 102

374 Index

Index 375

'Structure of a semantic theory, The'

(Katz and Kodor),209, 220 stylistirs, 44, 65 subcategori/ation, strict (Chomsky),

218

subject-predicate structure, 73, 338 subjective, 178 9

pejorative interpretation of the term,

16,335-7

subjective deontic modality, 330 subjective epistemic modality, 330-1,

334,341 subjective modality, 179 80, 311,

330-41 subjectivity, 257

in aspectual representations, 321, 324

of consciousness, 311

and locutionary agency, 336-42

and modality, 274

and mood, 255 6

use of term, 336 40 subjectivity of utterance, 293,

294 342

subjunctive, 176, 177 8, 181 subordination, 159 subscripts, to distinguish several

meanings of a word, 26 9 substitutional sense-relations, 124,

125-30

surface structure, 211, 222 Sweet, Henry, 65 symbol, 3 symbols, list of xvii symmetrical hyponymy, 127-8 syncategorematic forms, 71 2 synecdoche, 136 synonymous expressions, 60 5 synonymy, 48, 60 5, 289 syntactic differences, 53 Syntactic Structures (Chomsky), 210, 211 syntactic theory, 160 1, 162 syntagmatic sense-relations, 124 syntax, 105

synthetic proposition, 120, 127 system, 18,20,21-2 system-process-product

trichotomy, 22, 234 system-product ambiguity, 18 system-sentences, 259, 260

T/V distinction, 309-10 tabula rasa empiricism, 84, 98

tag-intcrrogativcs, 187 tautologies, 149, 280

and contradictions, 149-52 temporal properties, encoding in

different languages, 323-7 temporal reference, modelling on spatial

reference, 326 7 temporality

and modality, 318-19

and tense, 318 tense, 74, 195, 202, 293

aspect and mood, 195-7

bibliography, 345

comparable with the definite article and demonstratives, 316-17

confusion with aspect, 320-3

and definiteness of reference, 318

as a grammatical category, 196-7, 312 20

relationship with mood, 275, 319, 332 3

traditional definitions of, 313-14

use of term, 312 tense-distinctions, 31415 tense-logic, 197,315-17,333 tense-operators, 316 tense-systems, 306, 314-16

multi-level, 314-15

three-term, 314

two-level, J14-16 text

conversation and discourse, 32-40

definition of a text, 262-4

definition of text, 264-5

and discourse, 258-92

semantics of, bibliography, 346

use of the word, 34 text-sentences 259 60, 261 2 text-units, 261 thematic meaning, 154 7 theme, 154

theoretical linguistics, 203 theoretical semantics, 307 theory-independence, 244 theory-neutral, 67, 82, 236, 247-8 thought, and language, 90, 97 three-place (lexical) converse, 129 tokens, 49, 244, 246 traditional grammar, 54, 91, 160 transfer of meaning, 60 transform, 161

transformational rules, absence in

Montague grammar, 222-3 transformational-generative grammar, Chomsky 160, 161, 186, 199,205, 210-12 Fig., 7.1 transformations, 211

do not affect meaning, 213 translatability, 139 40, 141

and corrigibility, 138-40 translation

and conventional implicature, 275

one-to-one correspondence, 41-2

truth-based theories of the meaning of

sentences, 131-2 truth-by-correspondence, 232 truth-conditional equivalence, 63, 148 truth-conditional semantics, 69-71,

153-4, 164,272,276,300 compared with speech act theory, 257 limitations of xiv, 338, 342 and Montague grammar, 224-6 and possible worlds, 226-33 truth-conditional theory, 40, 44, 131, 132, 144, 146-9, 182, 185,201, 202,342 truth-conditionality, 230-1

and literal or metaphorical sense,

282-3 truth-conditions, 146-9, 154, 301

and truth-values, 131 truth-functional propositions, 162,

164-7,205,329 truth-functionality, 162-76 truth-in-a-model, 224 truth-under-an-interpretation, 224 truth-values, 118, 120, 121, 146, 225,

301

and truth-conditions, 131 truthfulness, 278, 300 tulusted distinction see T/V distinction tuji'ou.s distinction see T/V distinction Turkish, 181 turn-taking, 252 two-place converses, 129 two-place relations, 113 type/token distinction. 49, 53, 176 type/token identity, 49, 244-5 type(s), 49, 244, 246 typographical conventions xvii

universal grammar, 21

universal quantification, necessity and,

335 universal sense components, 106, 108-9,

114-16

universal speech acts, 251-2 universality assumptions, 108-17, 126 use, distinction from meaning xiii, 43 use of sentences, 144 use theory of meaning, 144 utterance

subjectivity of, 293-342 use of the term, 34, 35, 243 utterance-dependent, 79 utterance-independent, 79 utterance-inscriptions, 35, 136, 165,

259-60, 340

compared with propositions, 241-2 distinguished from sentences, 246 utterances and the production of,

242-3

utterance-meaning, 8, 34 bibliography, 345 conflicts with sentence-meaning,

181-2

and context, 265-71 context-dependency of, 37-8 distinguished from sentence-meaning,

34-40,44 5,144,171,259, 340-1 utterance-semantics xv utterance-signals, 35 utterances, 235-40

distinguished from sentences xiii,

32-40,71,234-40 and production of utterance-inscriptions, 242-3 relationship with sentences, 260 utterer's meaning, 42