12. Affixation

Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. The zero degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is homonymous with a word-form e.g. atom, haste, devote, anxious, horror, etc. Derived words whose bases are built on simple stems + one derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation, e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion, etc. Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of adding affixes the second degree of derivation, etc., e.g. atomical, hastily, devotional, etc. Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. In Modern English suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation.

Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English word-formation. The greater number of words that take prefixes are verbs – 42.4%, adjectives comprise 33,5% and nouns make up 22.4% (verbs: enrich, coexist, undergo; adjectives: antiwar, uneasy, superhuman; nouns: coauthor, disharmony. Two types of prefixes are to be distinguished:

1. those not correlated with any independent word (either notional or functional), e.g. un-, dis-, re-, pre-, post-, etc.; and

2. those correlated with functional words (prepositions or preposition like adverbs), e.g. out-, over-, up-, under-, etc. These prefixes are qualified as semi bound morphemes, which implies that they occur in speech in various utterances both as independent words and as derivational affixes (over the river – overpass, under the table – underestimate).

Prefixes may be classified on different principles. Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin.¹ Synchronically prefixes may be classified:

1. according to the class of words they preferably form. The majority of prefixes tend to function either in nominal parts of speech (41 patterns in adjectives, 42 in nouns) or in verbs (22 patterns).

2. as to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are added to (deverbal, denominal, deadjectival).

3. semantically prefixes fall into mono- and polysemantic.

4. as to the generic denotational meaning: negative (un-, non-, in-, dis-); reversative (un-, de-, dis-); perjorative (mis-, mal-, pseudo-); prefixes of time and order (fore-, pre-, post-, ex-); prefix of repetition (re-); locative prefixes (super-, sub-, inter-, trans-).

5. neutral stylistic reference (un-, out-, re-, under-) and those possessing quite a definite stylistic value, they have literary-bookish character (pseudo-, super-, ultra-).

6. prefixes may be also classified as to the degree of productivity into highly-productive, productive and non-productive.

Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually transfer words to a different part of speech. Chains of suffixes occurring in derived words having two and more suffixal morphemes are sometimes referred to in lexicography as compound suffixes: -ably = -able + -ly (e.g. profitably, unreasonably); -ically = -ic + -al + -ly (e.g. musically, critically); -ation = -ate + -ion (e.g. fascination, isolation) and some others. Further, there are suffixes due to which the primary stress is shifted to the syllable immediately preceding them, e.g. courageous (cf. courage), stability (cf. stable), investigation (cf. investigate), peculiarity (cf. peculiar), etc.

There are different classifications of suffixes:

1. The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests itself is the part of speech formed:

Noun-suffixes (-er, -dom, -ness, -ation)

Adjective-suffixes (-able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous)

Verb-suffixes (-en, -fy, -ise)

Adverb-suffixes (-ly, -ward)

2) Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is usually added to: a) deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);

2. denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. (handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.);

3. de-adjectival suffixes (those affixed to the adjective base), e.g. -en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc. (blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.).

3) A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by a set of suffixes: a) the agent of an action, e.g. -er, -ant (baker, dancer, defendant, etc.);

2. appurtenance, e.g. -an, -ian, -ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, etc.);

3. collectivity, e.g. -age, -dom, -ery (-ry), etc. (freightage, officialdom, peasantry, etc.);

4. diminutiveness, e.g. -ie, -let, -ling, etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squireling, wolfling, etc.).

4) From the angle of stylistic reference: a) those characterised by neutral stylistic reference such as -able, -er, -ing, etc.;

2. those having a certain stylistic value such as -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron, etc.

5) Suffixes are also classified as to the degree of their productivity.

Productivity: Distinction is usually made between dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words; they have so fused with the base of the word as to lose their independence completely, e.g. -d in dead, seed, -le, -1, -el in bundle, sail, hovel; -ock in hillock; -lock in wedlock; -t in flight, gift, height. Living affixes may be easily singled out from a word, e.g. the noun-forming suffixes -ness, -dom, -hood, -age, -ance, as in darkness, freedom, childhood, marriage, assistance, etc. or the adjective-forming suffixes -en, -ous, -ive, -ful, -y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful, Stony, etc.

Origin: the division is make between native and foreign affixes, e.g. the suffixes -ness, -ish, -dom and the prefixes be-, mis-, un- are of native origin, whereas such suffixes as -ation, -ment, -able and prefixes like dis-, ex-, re- are of foreign origin.

Many of the suffices and prefixes of native origin were originally independent words (-hood = OE state, -dom = OE judgement, -ly = OE body). In the course of its historical development the English language has adopted a great many suffixes and prefixes from foreign languages. Among borrowed derivational affixes we find both suffixes, e.g. -able, -ible, -al, -age, -ance, -ist, -ism, -ess, etc., and prefixes, e.g. dis-, en[em]-, inter-, re-, non- and many others.

The adoption of foreign words influence the system of English word-formation, so Hybrid words appear: 1) Cases when a foreign stem is combined with a native affix, as in colourless, uncertain. 2) Cases when native stems are combined with foreign affixes, such as drinkable, joyous, shepherdes.\