Экзаменационные темы по Английскому языку (переделанные)

Medical Education in Russia Any citizen of Russia who has a complete secondary edu­cation may apply to a medical school. All the applicants are required to take entrance competitive examinations in biology, chemistry and the Russian lan­guage. And those who have obtained "the highest marks in the ex­aminations are admitted. Applicants who have finished school with a gold or silver medal have to take only one examination. If they get an excellent mark, they are admitted to the medical school. Our academic year begins on September 1st and is divided into 2 terms of four months each. At the end of each term the students have to pass a number of examinations. The course of study lasts for 6 years and covers the basic preclinical and clinical subjects. The preclinical subjects study all faculties, it is physics, organic, inorganic and biological chemistry, human anatomy, microbiology, physiology, histology, Latin language, foreign language and philosophy. Beginning with the third year special clinical subjects are introduced - all branches of internal medicine, surgery, gynecology, obstetrics, ophthalmology, infectious diseases and others. Senior students have a lot of practical work with patients in clinics, hospitals, and out-patient departments. At the end of the third year students pass practice in quality nurse, after their fourth year as the assistant to the doctor. After the fifth year students take a six-week practical course in an out-patient department. The specialization begins in the sixth year, which is the final year of medical school and is termed sub-intern­ship. During the sixth year students work in clinics, polyclinics, sanitary and epidemiological stations. They also attend lectures, seminars and clinical confer­ences. After that they hand over final state examinations and receive the diploma. Then they have a further year of internship. Medical graduates can apply for the post-graduate training. For three years post-graduates do research into one of important problems of modern medicine, prepare a thesis, defend it and obtain an academic degree of Candidate of Medical Science.	Medical Education in Great Britain In Great Britain physicians are trained in either medical schools or faculties of Universities. We have medical schools in the Universities of London, Oxford, Birmingham, Bristol and Edinburgh. There are faculties of medicine in the Universities of Liverpool, Manch­ester, Glasgow and Aberdeen. Entry to a medical school is highly competitive. To enter a medical school in Great Britain candidates must pass entrance examinations. For entrance to a faculty of medicine or a medical school, it is required that the subjects of chemistry, physics and biology or mathematics should be taken at the advanced lever. Most students receive financial assistance in the form of grants, which cover their expenses wholly or in part. The academic year divided into 3 terms each of 10-11 weeks' duration. Clinical students, however, attend for 48 weeks of the year. Two pre-clinical years are occupied by human anatomy and biology, physiology and biochemistry. They also study physiology, statistics and genetics. Latin is not taught in all medical schools. Beginning with the third year the students study the methods of clinical examinations and history taking, general pathology, microbiology, pharmacology and community medicine. Medical students have practical training in teaching hospitals. Daily bedside instruction in hospital wards and out-patient departments is given by teachers and doctors. So three years are spent in clinical studies to obtain degrees of Bachelor of Medicine (B.M.) and Bachelor of Surgery (B.S.). At the end of each term and after each spe­cial course students take final exams (they are called sessionals). The final examinations or finals are in Medicine, Surgery, Obstet­rics and Gynecology and Pathology. After the finals graduates work in hospitals for a year. This period is called internship. After internship a young doctor obtains a "Certificate of Experience” from the medical schools and he or she may work as medical practitioner. Besides degrees B.M. and B.S. we have the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). This degree is a postgraduate qualification obtained by writing a thesis based on original work.	Medical Education in the USA From primary school education generally, it takes the pupil from the age of 6 to the age of 14 years, and secondary school - to the age of 18. After finishing his secondary studies the candidate for medical school must complete at least three years of higher education in a college or university. This period is called “the premedical phase”. A student applies to a medical school when he has completed premedical studies. The application costs approximately 50$. Academic achievement is the most important factor in the selection of students. The candidates are required to pass the admission test. The test lasts about eight hours over a one day period and includes questions in biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics and English. The competition is very difficult and only about half of the students who apply to a medical school are accepted and begin their medical education. The basic medical sciences are taught largely during the first two years of medical studies. During the final two years the curriculum consists of clinical subjects. Medical students do their practicum at teaching hospitals affiliated to the medical school. At the end of four years all students receive the Degree of Doctor of Medicine, that is M.D. Then they must work for one year as interns. The period of residency is obligatory for all medical graduates. Generally, the period of residency is three or four years. After the residency the graduate is granted a license to practice and he may work either in government service or in private prac­tice. The majority of the students have to work to pay for their studies. The government-financed universities charge less while the tuition of the private colleges and universities is extremely high.
Medical Service in Russia As to the character of health care in our country, the most distinctive feature of it is the attention paid to prophylaxis. In Russia the primary medical care is provided by polyclinics. Our polyclinics are large units employing many doctors and nurses. Polyclinics have their own laboratories, X-ray, physiotherapy, surgical and dental departments. Some have even radiotherapy units. We have polyclinics for the adult population of a given area and polyclinics for children. Ambulant patients are seen at the polyclinic by district doctors. Patients who are seriously ill are visited by their district doctor at home. The doctor works 6 hours a day. For the district doctor this is made up of 3 hours in consultation at the polyclinic and 3 hours in visiting patients in their homes. The emergency ambulance service operates day and night and is free of charge. In case of an emergency condition one has to dial 03 for the doctor to come. The Mother-and-Child Health Care Centre in Moscow concentrates efforts not only on traditional problems of obstetrics and gynecology but also on research in normal physiology of the female organism starting from an early stage development. The main task of this centre is to ensure the birth of a healthy child. As for scientific problems medical research is concerned with the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular, viral, and on­cological diseases, the problems of gerontology, medical genetics, immunology and the development of artificial organs. Modern non-invasive/minimally invasive techniques of the surgical treatment of ischemic heart disease have been introduced, among them coronary artery bypass grafting, percutaneous transloominal coronary angioplasty or intracoronary stenting.	Health service in Great Britain The National Health Service Act was passed through Parliament in 1946 and in 1948 this Act received the Royal Assent and was brought into operation. The National Health Service provides free medical treat­ment both in hospital and in the out-patient clinic. People may use the NHS or they may go to doctors as private patients. In big cities there are some private hospitals which people may use. Many people who have enough money still prefer to be private patients. The patient in our country can choose between NHS or private treatment at any time. Moreover he can take some of his medical care through the NHS and some privately. In fact, 97 per cent of the population use the NHS. The role of the family doctor(G.P.) is very important in the Health Service. GP does invaluable work by filtering off 90 per cent or so of the total medical work. The freedom of choice, applies of doctors and dentists. They can choose whether they want to join the NHS or not and whether they will have NHS or private ones. Half of our hospitals are over 80 or 100 years old. Such hospitals are not economical and cannot provide a full range of service. Now we have more that 150 health centres in U.K. Health centres provide all the special diagnostic and therapeutic services, which family doctors need, such as electrocardiography, X-ray, physiotherapy, and good administrative and medical records systems. There are centres which provide consultant services in general medicine and surgery, ear-nose-throat diseases, obstetrics and gynaecology, ophthalmology, psychiatry and orthopaedics. All consultations in the centre are by appointment only. The patient is given a definite time at which to attend. This is recorded on a card for him. Each doctor decides for himself how many patients he can examine for an hour. The patient is the most important person in the health centre and that we should direct all our energy towards helping him as much as possible.	Health Care System in the USA The health care system in USA, it is organized in three levels: family doctor, the medical institution or hospital and the U.S. Public Health Service. A private doctor, Americans call him family doctor, gives his patients regular examinations and inoculations. The family doctor receives pay directly from the patient. A family doctor either has his own private office or works with several other doctors in the so-called group practice. Many Americans have no family doctor and they come directly to the hospital for all their medical needs. We have government-financed and private hospitals. The nursing staff is very important. Nurses are in close contact with patients as long as they are in the hospital. Most hospitals have at least the following major medical depart­ments or units: surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics and general medicine. They may also have trauma and intensive care unit, neurosurgical, renal care unit and psychiatric unit. The Emergency Room is a very special area in the hospital. The Emergency patients acquire immediate attention. Most of the population have private health insurance. The great cost of medical care in the country and the great number of people who could not pay for it forced the federal govern­ment to develop two programs - Medicaid and Medicare. Medicaid, started in 1966, is a federal program, providing free medical care for the low-income, the aged, the blind and for dependent children. Medicare, started in 1967, is a federal program providing free medical care for aged Americans over 65, for those who in the past had the greatest medical expenses. The main scientific problem cardiovascular diseases and a cancer. The chief causes of suffering and death today are cancer and cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension, stroke and atherosclerosis. Also much medical research is done on illnesses of aging and disabilities caused by arthritis, mental diseases, drug addiction and genetic problems. We must seek new knowledge about the causes and cure of these diseases.
The Moscow Sechenov Medical Academy Originally, the Academy was the faculty of the Moscow University which was founded by the prominent Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov in 1765. Only in 1930 the medical faculty of the University was reorganized into an independent higher learning institution. In 1953 it was named after I. M. Sechenov in honor and memory of his contribution into physiology and medicine and in 1990 it was reorganized into the Medical Academy. Many outstanding scientists studied and taught at the Academy. Among them Sechenov, Abricosov, Pirogov, Botkin, Filatov, Burdenko, Semashko, Sklifosovsky, Erisman and others. At present there are many faculties at the Academy: the Medical Faculty, the Faculty of Preventive Medicine, the Pharmaceutical Faculty (with an evening division), the Nursing faculty, the stomatological faculty, the military medicine faculty, the Faculty for Training Medical Researches and Instruktors, as well as the post-graduate Health Care Management Faculty and the Faculty for Advanced Training of doctors and pharmacists. There is also the preparatory department at the Academy. The head of each faculty is the Dean. The whole academy is practically divided into the junior and senior levels. There are a six-year course of study at the Medical, Preventive Medicine, Stomatological and Military Medicine Faculties. At the Pharmaceutical Faculty the students are trained for five years. Over 9000 students from Russia and other countries study at the Academy. A great number of qualified teachers work at the Academy, among them 72 academicians, 300 professors, more than 1000 doctors and candidates of sciences. The curriculum includes all the basis and clinical subjects that are necessary for the training of highly qualified doctors, and nurses. At the end of each term (or semester) students take examinations. The undergraduates do a practicum at the clinics and teaching hospitals of the Academy. The students of the Academy have various facilities for sports and recreation. Students from other towns are given hostel accommodation. In 1965 the Moscow Sechenov Medical Academy celebrated its two-hundredth anniversary and was awarded the second order – the Order of Red Banner of Labour. In 2000 the Moscow Sechenov Medical Academy celebrated its 235^thanniversary. Young doctors, graduates of the Academy, take The Oath of the Russian Doctor. Young doctors solemnly swear that they will use all their knowledge and abilities to improve the people's health,and to prevent and cure diseases.