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page 1

Integration and Automation

Manufacturing Systems

by: Hugh Jack

page 2

PREFACE

1.INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING . . . .13

1.1	INTRODUCTION		13
	1.1.1	Why Integrate?	13
	1.1.2	Why Automate?	14
1.2	THE BIG PICTURE		16
	1.2.1	CAD/CAM?	17
	1.2.2	The Architecture of Integration	17
	1.2.3	General Concepts	19
1.3	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		22

2.AN INTRODUCTION TO LINUX/UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

2.1	OVERVIEW		23
	2.1.1	What is it?	23
	2.1.2	A (Brief) History	24
	2.1.3	Hardware required and supported	25
	2.1.4	Applications and uses	25
	2.1.5	Advantages and Disadvantages	26
	2.1.6	Getting It	26
	2.1.7	Distributions	27
	2.1.8	Installing	27
2.2	USING LINUX		28
	2.2.1	Some Terminology	28
	2.2.2	File and directories	29
	2.2.3	User accounts and root	31
	2.2.4	Processes	33
2.3	NETWORKING		34
	2.3.1	Security	35
2.4	INTERMEDIATE CONCEPTS		35
	2.4.1	Shells	35
	2.4.2	X-Windows	36
	2.4.3	Configuring	36
	2.4.4	Desktop Tools	37
2.5	LABORATORY - A LINUX SERVER		37
2.6	TUTORIAL - INSTALLING LINUX		38
2.7	TUTORIAL - USING LINUX		40
2.8	REFERENCES		41

3.AN INTRODUCTION TO C/C++ PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . .43

3.1	INTRODUCTION	43
3.2	PROGRAM PARTS	44
3.3	CLASSES AND OVERLOADING	50
3.4	HOW A ‘C’ COMPILER WORKS	52

		page 3
3.5	STRUCTURED ‘C’ CODE		53
3.6	COMPILING C PROGRAMS IN LINUX		54
	3.6.1	Makefiles	55
3.7	ARCHITECTURE OF ‘C’ PROGRAMS (TOP-DOWN)		56
	3.7.1	How?	56
	3.7.2	Why?	57
3.8	CREATING TOP DOWN PROGRAMS		58
3.9	CASE STUDY - THE BEAMCAD PROGRAM		59
	3.9.1	Objectives:	59
	3.9.2	Problem Definition:	59
	3.9.3	User Interface:	59
		Screen Layout (also see figure):	59
		Input:	60
		Output:	60
		Help:	60
		Error Checking:	61
		Miscellaneous:	61
	3.9.4	Flow Program:	62
	3.9.5	Expand Program:	62
	3.9.6	Testing and Debugging:	64
	3.9.7	Documentation	65
		Users Manual:	65
		Programmers Manual:	65
	3.9.8	Listing of BeamCAD Program.	65
3.10	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		66
3.11	LABORATORY - C PROGRAMMING		66

4.NETWORK COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

4.1	INTRODUCTION		68
4.2	NETWORKS		69
	4.2.1	Topology	69
	4.2.2	OSI Network Model	71
	4.2.3	Networking Hardware	73
	4.2.4	Control Network Issues	75
	4.2.5	Ethernet	76
	4.2.6	SLIP and PPP	77
4.3	INTERNET		78
	4.3.1	Computer Addresses	79
	4.3.2	Computer Ports	80
		Mail Transfer Protocols	81
		FTP - File Transfer Protocol	81
		HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol	81
	4.3.3	Security	82
		Firewalls and IP Masquerading	84
4.4	FORMATS		85

		page 4
	4.4.1	HTML	85
	4.4.2	URLs	87
	4.4.3	Encryption	88
	4.4.4	Clients and Servers	88
	4.4.5	Java	89
	4.4.6	Javascript	89
	4.4.7	CGI	89
4.5	NETWORKING IN LINUX		89
	4.5.1	Network Programming in Linux	91
4.6	DESIGN CASES		102
4.7	SUMMARY		103
4.8	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		103
4.9	LABORATORY - NETWORKING		104
	4.9.1	Prelab	105
	4.9.2	Laboratory	107

5.DATABASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

5.1	SQL AND RELATIONAL DATABASES	109
5.2	DATABASE ISSUES	114
5.3	LABORATORY - SQL FOR DATABASE INTEGRATION	114
5.4	LABORATORY - USING C FOR DATABASE CALLS	116

6.COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

6.1	SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS		119
	6.1.1	RS-232	122
6.2	SERIAL COMMUNICATIONS UNDER LINUX		125
6.3	PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS		129

6.4LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING AND PROGRAMMING

130

6.5

LABORATORY - STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER

130

7.PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLCs) . . . . . . .134

7.1	BASIC LADDER LOGIC		136
7.2	WHAT DOES LADDER LOGIC DO?		138
	7.2.1	Connecting A PLC To A Process	139
	7.2.2	PLC Operation	139
7.3	LADDER LOGIC		141
	7.3.1	Relay Terminology	144
	7.3.2	Ladder Logic Inputs	146
	7.3.3	Ladder Logic Outputs	147
7.4	LADDER DIAGRAMS		147
	7.4.1	Ladder Logic Design	148
	7.4.2	A More Complicated Example of Design	150
7.5	TIMERS/COUNTERS/LATCHES		151

		page 5
7.6	LATCHES		152
7.7	TIMERS		153
7.8	COUNTERS		157
7.9	DESIGN AND SAFETY		159
	7.9.1	FLOW CHARTS	160
7.10	SAFETY		160
	7.10.1	Grounding	161
	7.10.2	Programming/Wiring	162
	7.10.3	PLC Safety Rules	162
	7.10.4	Troubleshooting	163
7.11	DESIGN CASES		164
	7.11.1	DEADMAN SWITCH	164
	7.11.2	CONVEYOR	165
	7.11.3	ACCEPT/REJECT SORTING	165
	7.11.4	SHEAR PRESS	166
7.12	ADDRESSING		168
	7.12.1	Data Files	169
		Inputs and Outputs	172
		User Numerical Memory	172
		Timer Counter Memory	172
		PLC Status Bits (for PLC-5s)	173
		User Function Memory	174
7.13	INSTRUCTION TYPES		174
	7.13.1	Program Control Structures	175
	7.13.2	Branching and Looping	175
		Immediate I/O Instructions	179
		Fault Detection and Interrupts	181
	7.13.3	Basic Data Handling	182
		Move Functions	182
7.14	MATH FUNCTIONS		184
7.15	LOGICAL FUNCTIONS		191
	7.15.1	Comparison of Values	191
7.16	BINARY FUNCTIONS		193
7.17	ADVANCED DATA HANDLING		194
	7.17.1	Multiple Data Value Functions	195
	7.17.2	Block Transfer Functions	196
7.18	COMPLEX FUNCTIONS		198
	7.18.1	Shift Registers	198
	7.18.2	Stacks	199
	7.18.3	Sequencers	200
7.19	ASCII FUNCTIONS		202
7.20	DESIGN TECHNIQUES		203
	7.20.1	State Diagrams	203
7.21	DESIGN CASES		206
	7.21.1	If-Then	207

		page 6
	7.21.2	For-Next	207
	7.21.3	Conveyor	208
7.22	IMPLEMENTATION		209
7.23	PLC WIRING		209
	7.23.1	SWITCHED INPUTS AND OUTPUTS	210
		Input Modules	211
		Actuators	212
		Output Modules	213
7.24	THE PLC ENVIRONMENT		216
	7.24.1	Electrical Wiring Diagrams	216
	7.24.2	Wiring	219
	7.24.3	Shielding and Grounding	221
	7.24.4	PLC Environment	223
	7.24.5	SPECIAL I/O MODULES	224
7.25	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		227
7.26	REFERENCES		237
7.27	LABORATORY - SERIAL INTERFACING TO A PLC		238

8.PLCS AND NETWORKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240

8.1	OPEN NETWORK TYPES		240
	8.1.1	Devicenet	240
	8.1.2	CANbus	245
	8.1.3	Controlnet	246
	8.1.4	Profibus	247
8.2	PROPRIETARY NETWORKS		248
		Data Highway	248
8.3	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		252
8.4	LABORATORY - DEVICENET		258
8.5	TUTORIAL - SOFTPLC AND DEVICENET		258

9.INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262

9.1	INTRODUCTION		262
	9.1.1	Basic Terms	262
	9.1.2	Positioning Concepts	266
		Accuracy and Repeatability	266
		Control Resolution	270
		Payload	271
9.2	ROBOT TYPES		276
	9.2.1	Basic Robotic Systems	276
	9.2.2	Types of Robots	277
		Robotic Arms	277
		Autonomous/Mobile Robots	280
		Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs)	280
9.3	MECHANISMS		281
9.4	ACTUATORS		282

		page 7
9.5	A COMMERCIAL ROBOT		283
	9.5.1	Mitsubishi RV-M1 Manipulator	284
	9.5.2	Movemaster Programs	286
		Language Examples	286
	9.5.3	Command Summary	290
9.6	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		291
9.7	LABORATORY - MITSUBISHI RV-M1 ROBOT		296
9.8	TUTORIAL - MITSUBISHI RV-M1		296

10.OTHER INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299

10.1	SEIKO RT 3000 MANIPULATOR		299
	10.1.1	DARL Programs	300
		Language Examples	301
		Commands Summary	305
10.2	IBM 7535 MANIPULATOR		308
	10.2.1	AML Programs	312
10.3	ASEA IRB-1000		317
10.4	UNIMATION PUMA (360, 550, 560 SERIES)		319
10.5	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		320
10.6	LABORATORY - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT		330
10.7	TUTORIAL - SEIKO RT-3000 ROBOT		331
10.8	LABORATORY - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT		332
10.9	TUTORIAL - ASEA IRB-1000 ROBOT		332

11.ROBOT APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333

	11.0.1	Overview	333
	11.0.2 Spray Painting and Finishing		335
	11.0.3	Welding	335
	11.0.4	Assembly	336
	11.0.5 Belt Based Material Transfer		336
11.1	END OF ARM TOOLING (EOAT)		337
	11.1.1	EOAT Design	337
	11.1.2	Gripper Mechanisms	340
		Vacuum grippers	342
	11.1.3	Magnetic Grippers	344
		Adhesive Grippers	345
	11.1.4	Expanding Grippers	345
	11.1.5 Other Types Of Grippers		346
11.2	ADVANCED TOPICS		347
	11.2.1	Simulation/Off-line Programming	347
11.3	INTERFACING		348
11.4	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		348
11.5	LABORATORY - ROBOT INTERFACING		350
11.6	LABORATORY - ROBOT WORKCELL INTEGRATION		351

page 8

12.SPATIAL KINEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352

12.1	BASICS		352
	12.1.1	Degrees of Freedom	353
12.2	HOMOGENEOUS MATRICES		354
	12.2.1	Denavit-Hartenberg Transformation (D-H)	359
	12.2.2	Orientation	361
	12.2.3	Inverse Kinematics	363
	12.2.4	The Jacobian	364
12.3	SPATIAL DYNAMICS		366
	12.3.1	Moments of Inertia About Arbitrary Axes	366
	12.3.2	Euler’s Equations of Motion	369
	12.3.3	Impulses and Momentum	370
		Linear Momentum	370
		Angular Momentum	371
12.4	DYNAMICS FOR KINEMATICS CHAINS		372
	12.4.1	Euler-Lagrange	372
	12.4.2	Newton-Euler	375
12.5	REFERENCES		375
12.6	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		376

13.MOTION CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390

13.1	KINEMATICS		390
	13.1.1	Basic Terms	390
	13.1.2	Kinematics	391
		Geometry Methods for Forward Kinematics	392
		Geometry Methods for Inverse Kinematics	393
	13.1.3	Modeling the Robot	394
13.2	PATH PLANNING		395
	13.2.1	Slew Motion	395
		Joint Interpolated Motion	397
		Straight-line motion	397

13.2.2Computer Control of Robot Paths (Incremental Interpolation)400

13.3	PRACTICE PROBLEMS	403
13.4	LABORATORY - AXIS AND MOTION CONTROL	408

14.CNC MACHINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409

14.1	MACHINE AXES		409
14.2	NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)		409
	14.2.1	NC Tapes	410
	14.2.2	Computer Numerical Control (CNC)	411
	14.2.3	Direct/Distributed Numerical Control (DNC)	412
14.3	EXAMPLES OF EQUIPMENT		414
	14.3.1	EMCO PC Turn 50	414
	14.3.2	Light Machines Corp. proLIGHT Mill	415

	page 9
14.4	PRACTICE PROBLEMS	417
14.5	TUTORIAL - EMCO MAIER PCTURN 50 LATHE (OLD)	417

14.6TUTORIAL - PC TURN 50 LATHE DOCUMENTATION: (By Jonathan

DeBoer) 418

14.6.1 LABORATORY - CNC MACHINING

424

15.CNC PROGRAMMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426

15.1	G-CODES	428
15.2	APT	436
15.3	PROPRIETARY NC CODES	440
15.4	GRAPHICAL PART PROGRAMMING	441
15.5	NC CUTTER PATHS	442
15.6	NC CONTROLLERS	444
15.7	PRACTICE PROBLEMS	445
15.8	LABORATORY - CNC INTEGRATION	446

16.DATA AQUISITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448

16.1	INTRODUCTION	448
16.2	ANALOG INPUTS	449
16.3	ANALOG OUTPUTS	455
16.4	REAL-TIME PROCESSING	458
16.5	DISCRETE IO	459
16.6	COUNTERS AND TIMERS	459
16.7	ACCESSING DAQ CARDS FROM LINUX	459
16.8	SUMMARY	476
16.9	PRACTICE PROBLEMS	476
16.10	LABORATORY - INTERFACING TO A DAQ CARD	478

17.VISIONS SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479

17.1	OVERVIEW		479
17.2	APPLICATIONS		480
17.3	LIGHTING AND SCENE		481
17.4	CAMERAS		482
17.5	FRAME GRABBER		486
17.6	IMAGE PREPROCESSING		486
17.7	FILTERING		487
	17.7.1	Thresholding	487
17.8	EDGE DETECTION		487
17.9	SEGMENTATION		488
	17.9.1	Segment Mass Properties	490
17.10	RECOGNITION		491
	17.10.1	Form Fitting	491
	17.10.2	Decision Trees	492

	page 10
17.11	PRACTICE PROBLEMS	494
17.12	TUTORIAL - LABVIEW BASED IMAQ VISION	499
17.13	LABORATORY - VISION SYSTEMS FOR INSPECTION	500

18.INTEGRATION ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502

18.1	CORPORATE STRUCTURES	502
18.2	CORPORATE COMMUNICATIONS	502
18.3	COMPUTER CONTROLLED BATCH PROCESSES	514
18.4	PRACTICE PROBLEMS	516
18.5	LABORATORY - WORKCELL INTEGRATION	516

19.MATERIAL HANDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518

19.1	INTRODUCTION		518
19.2	VIBRATORY FEEDERS		520
19.3	PRACTICE QUESTIONS		521
19.4	LABORATORY - MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEM		521
	19.4.1 System Assembly and Simple Controls		521
19.5	AN EXAMPLE OF AN FMS CELL		523
	19.5.1	Overview	523
	19.5.2	Workcell Specifications	525
	19.5.3	Operation of The Cell	526
19.6	THE NEED FOR CONCURRENT PROCESSING		534
19.7	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		536

20.PETRI NETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537

20.1	INTRODUCTION		537
20.2	A BRIEF OUTLINE OF PETRI NET THEORY		537
20.3	MORE REVIEW		540
20.4	USING THE SUBROUTINES		548
	20.4.1	Basic Petri Net Simulation	548
	20.4.2	Transitions With Inhibiting Inputs	550
	20.4.3	An Exclusive OR Transition:	552
	20.4.4	Colored Tokens	555
	20.4.5	RELATIONAL NETS	557
20.5	C++ SOFTWARE		558
20.6	IMPLEMENTATION FOR A PLC		559
20.7	PRACTICE PROBLEMS		564
20.8	REFERENCES		565

21.PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . .566

21.1	OVERVIEW		566
21.2	SCHEDULING		567
	21.2.1	Material Requirements Planning (MRP)	567
	21.2.2	Capacity Planning	569

		page 11
21.3	SHOP FLOOR CONTROL		570
	21.3.1	Shop Floor Scheduling - Priority Scheduling	570
	21.3.2	Shop Floor Monitoring	571

22. SIMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572

22.1	MODEL BUILDING	573
22.2	ANALYSIS	575
22.3	DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS	576
22.4	RUNNING THE SIMULATION	579
22.5	DECISION MAKING STRATEGY	579

23. PLANNING AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581

23.1	FACTORS TO CONSIDER	581
23.2	PROJECT COST ACCOUNTING	583

24. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587 25. APPENDIX A - PROJECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588

	25.1	TOPIC SELECTION	588
		25.1.1 Previous Project Topics	588
	25.2	CURRENT PROJECT DESCRIPTIONS	590
26.	APPENDIX B - COMMON REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .		591
	26.1	JIC ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS	591
	26.2	NEMA ENCLOSURES	592

page 12

PREFACE

I have been involved in teaching laboratory based integrated manufacturing courses since 1993. Over that time I have used many textbooks, but I have always been unsatisfied with their technical depth. To offset this I had to supply supplemental materials. These supplemental materials have evolved into this book.

This book is designed to focus on topics relevant to the modern manufacturer, while avoiding topics that are more research oriented. This allows the chapters to focus on the applicable theory for the integrated systems, and then discuss implementation.

Many of the chapters of this book use the Linux operating system. Some might argue that Microsoft products are more pervasive, and so should be emphasized, but I disagree with this. It is much easier to implement a complex system in Linux, and once implemented the system is more reliable, secure and easier to maintain. In addition the Microsoft operating system is designed with a model that focuses on entertainment and office use and is incompatible with the needs of manufacturing professionals. Most notably there is a constant pressure to upgrade every 2-3 years adding a burden.

The reader is expected to have some knowledge of C, or C++ programming, although a review chapter is provided. When possible a programming example is supplied to allow the reader to develop their own programs for integration and automation.

page 13

1. INTEGRATED AND AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING

Integrated manufacturing uses computers to connect physically separated processes. When integrated, the processes can share information and initiate actions. This allows decisions to be made faster and with fewer errors. Automation allows manufacturing processes to be run automatically, without requiring intervention.

This chapter will discuss how these systems fit into manufacturing, and what role they play.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

An integrated system requires that there be two or more computers connected to pass information. A simple example is a robot controller and a programmable logic controller working together in a single machine. A complex example is an entire manufacturing plant with hundreds of workstations connected to a central database. The database is used to distribute work instructions, job routing data and to store quality control test results. In all cases the major issue is connecting devices for the purposes of transmitting data.

•Automated equipment and systems don’t require human effort or direction. Although this does not require a computer based solution

•Automated systems benefit from some level of integration

1.1.1 Why Integrate?

There is a tendency to look at computer based solutions as inherently superior. This is an assumption that an engineer cannot afford to entertain. Some of the factors that justify an inte-

page 14

grated system are listed below.

•a large organization where interdepartmental communication is a problem

•the need to monitor processes

•Things to Avoid when making a decision for integration and automation,

-ignore impact on upstream and downstream operations

-allow the system to become the driving force in strategy

-believe the vendor will solve the problem

-base decisions solely on financials

-ignore employee input to the process

-try to implement all at once (if possible)

•Justification of integration and automation,

-consider “BIG” picture

-determine key problems that must be solved

-highlight areas that will be impacted in enterprise

-determine kind of flexibility needed

-determine what kind of integration to use

-look at FMS impacts

-consider implementation cost based on above

•Factors to consider in integration decision,

-volume of product

-previous experience of company with FMS

-product mix

-scheduling / production mixes

-extent of information system usage in organization (eg. MRP)

-use of CAD/CAM at the front end.

-availability of process planning and process data

* Process planning is only part of CIM, and cannot stand alone.

1.1.2 Why Automate?

•Why ? - In many cases there are valid reasons for assisting humans

-tedious work -- consistency required

-dangerous

-tasks are beyond normal human abilities (e.g., weight, time, size, etc)

-economics

page 15

• When?

hard automation

unit cost

robotic assembly

manual assembly

manual

flexible

fixed

constant production volumes

Figure 1.1 - Automation Tradeoffs

•Advantages of Automated Manufacturing,

-improved work flow

-reduced handling

-simplification of production

-reduced lead time

-increased moral in workers (after a wise implementation)

-more responsive to quality, and other problems

-etc.

•Various measures of flexibility,

-Able to deal with slightly, or greatly mixed parts.

-Variations allowed in parts mix

-Routing flexibility to alternate machines

-Volume flexibility

-Design change flexibility

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