Grammatika_sovremennogo_angliyskogo_y

thing', 'the whole of a thing'.

e.g. All's well that ends well, (proverb)

I don't find any change here, all looks as it always did. He has lost all.

Some day his pictures will be worth more than all you have in your shop.

All used as a noun pronoun is plural when it means 'everybody', 'the total number of persons, animals or things.'

e.g. All are welcome.

All agree that he has behaved splendidly.

All of us think so.

He made a few suggestions. All of them were acceptable.

When all is used as an adjective pronoun, the verb may be singular or plural depending on the noun modified by all.

e.g. All the money was spent.

All that business fills me with disgust. All the trunks are packed ready to go.

All students should register before October 1st.

There are a few peculiarities in the use of all:

1) When all is followed by a noun, there is no preposition between them.1

e.g. He worked hard all time he was here.

I don't like to speak before all these people. All my friends were happy to hear the news.

All boys prefer playing games to going to school.

However, when all is followed by a personal pronoun, the preposition of must be used.

e.g. He has written three novels and all of them were best sellers. All of us were disappointed by him.

Note. In American English nouns following all are often joined to it, like personal pronouns, with the help of the preposition of.

e.g. All of our students have registered. All of these books are mine.

2) Note the possible place of all with nouns (a) and personal pronouns (b) used as the subject of the sentence.

e.g. a) All the students found the lectures helpful. The students all found the lectures helpful,

b) All of them found the lectures helpful. They all found the lectures helpful.

3) All may be followed by an appositive clause which is usually introduced by the conjunction that or asyndetically.

e.g. Meeting George was the first piece of pure chance that affected all (that) I did later.

1 For the use or absence of the definite article after all see "Articles", §10, Note.

She listened to all (that) he said with a quiet smile on her lips. Note the following idiomatic uses of all:

e.g. He is all in. (= He is completely exhausted.) It was all my fault. (= entirely)

The money is all gone. (= completely)

He was all covered with mud. (= wholly)

I did not understand it at all. (= in the least degree)

After all, people laughed at Manet, though everyone now knows he was a great painter.

I warn you, once and for all, that this foolishness must stop. (= for the last and only time)

§ 26. The pronoun every is used only as an adjective pronoun. It modifies singular countable nouns when there are more than two objects of the same description.

e.g. After the gale every flower in the garden was broken.

Every head turned to look at them as they progressed slowly up the aisle.

He knew by heart every word in her letter.

Every morning the landlady greeted him with the same question, "Had a good sleep, dear?"

Every time I ring you up, I find you engaged.

He had every reason to believe that he was right.

Note the idiomatic uses of every in the following sentences:

e.g. Every other house in the street was damaged in an air-raid. (= every second, fourth, sixth, etc. house; about half the houses)

He comes here every three days. (= every third day)

They had a rest every few miles. (= They had a rest every time they had walked a few miles.)

Every is a synonym of all when the latter is used attributively. The use of every is, however, more restricted than that of all because it cannot be used with uncountable nouns.

With countable nouns, their use appears to be parallel.

e.g. The explosion broke all the windows in the street. The explosion broke every window in the street.

Yet, in addition to the fact that every precedes singular nouns and all is associated with plural nouns, there is a difference in meaning. The distinction between all and every is that in a sentence like All the boys were present we consider the boys in a mass; in the sentence Every boy was present we are thinking of the many individual boys that make up the mass. Nevertheless it is more usual to use every instead of all where possible.

§ 27. There are the following compound pronouns formed with every; everyone — everybody — everything.

All of them are used as noun pronouns and take a singular verb. Everyone and everybody can be used only of persons.

e.g. Everyone's got a right to their own opinion.

She took the initiative and herself spoke to everyone she knew. "Everybody's afraid, aren't they?" he said looking at the people around.

Both everyone and everybody can have the form of the genitive case,

e.g. He's sure of everyone's consent.

The difference in meaning between everyone and everybody is the same as between someone and somebody (see § 22 above). Only everyone can be followed by an of-phrase.

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e.g. He is at once physician, surgeon and healer of the serious illnesses which threaten everyone of us in England today.

Note. The compounds with one are distinct from such groups as every one, any one and some one where one is numerical and refers back to a countable noun that oc curs in the sentence or the context. These groups are often followed by of-phrases. e.g. I have three sisters. Every one of them is beautiful.

The book opened to them new worlds, and every one of them was glorious. But he knew that it would not take much for every one of them to start

talking freely.

Give me one of those books — any one will do.

Everything can be used only of things and also takes a singular verb but it cannot have the genitive case form,

e.g. No wonder everything goes wrong in this house. I'll tell you everything tonight.

One can't have everything.

§ 28. The pronoun each is used as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. In the former case it is singular in meaning and takes a singular verb (a). In the latter case it is associated with a singular countable noun and can be used when there are at least two objects of the same description (b).

e.g. a) I told them what each was to do in case of an emergency, b) For years I thought I remembered each detail of that day.

I have met him each time he has come to London. We examined each specimen minutely.

He gave each boy a present.

Each as an adjective pronoun is a synonym of every but there is some difference in meaning between them. Every tends to gath- | er the separate items into a whole; each focuses attention on them individually and so tends to disperse the unity, it takes the members of a definite group one by one, without adding them up. In other words, every refers to a number of individuals or things, considered as a group; each refers to a number of individuals or things, considered separately.

e.g. Every orange in the crate was wrapped in tissue paper. He carefully unwrapped each orange before putting it on the scales.

As a result of its specific meaning, each may be followed by an of-phrase, which is not possible in the case of every.

e.g. Each of the men signed his name as he came in. 1'11 send each of you some seeds in the autumn. Each of the ten houses in the row had a garden.

§ 29. The pronoun other can be used as an adjective pronoun and as a noun pronoun.

As an adjective pronoun, it is invariable. When it is preceded by the indefinite article (an), they are written as one word another.

"The other + a singular noun" means 'the second of the two.'

e.g. The insurance offices were on the other side of the street. He pulled on the other glove and said that, though it was

late, he would run along to his office.

I spent half my time teaching law and the other half in London as a consultant to a big firm.

"Another + a singular noun" means 'an additional one', 'a dif-

ferent one'.

e.g. Young Martin had been sent on another errand to the grocer. Richard stayed for another moment, shifting from one foot

to the other.

We went into another room.

I must find myself another job.

"The other +a plural noun" means 'the rest', 'the remaining',

e.g. My mother said: "I don't want my boy to suffer in any way at the side of the other boys in the form."

When I returned home I found my wife talking to our neighbour. The other guests had gone.

"Other + a plural noun" means 'additional', 'different', 'remaining' .

e.g. I have no other friends but you.

"We can do as well as other people," my aunt said.

He said that he would ring Charles up as soon as he got home. Then he talked of other things all the way.

Some children like milk chocolate, other children prefer plain chocolate.

As a noun pronoun, other has the plural form others and the genitive case forms other's and others'.

Other used as a noun pronoun has the same meanings as when it is used as an adjective pronoun (see above),

e.g. Simon set one foot slightly in front of the other, ready to

fight.

It was only another of her many disappointments.

If that cigar is too strong, try another.

That may be your opinion, but the others think differently. I

have talked to them.

All superiors were important to Mr Vesey, though some were more important than others.

One of his daughters is married to a man who lives by his pen. The other's husband is a doctor.

Note the idiomatic uses of other in the following sentences:

e.g. I don't want him to be other than he is.(= I don't want him to be different.)

She could invent no way of squeezing another nine guineas out of her budget. (= nine guineas more)

Another fifty yards farther on you can see Marcello's boat. (= fifty yards more)

"I saw your wife the other day," I said. (= a few days ago) And somehow or other he had acquired a wide acquaintance

with the less known parts of the city. (= in some way that cannot be accounted for)

Some idiot or other has been throwing stones at the dog.

§ 30. The pronoun either and its negative counterpart neither are used as noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns. When used as nouns, they take a singular verb. Either usually means 'one or the other of two'.

e.g. Either of these machines is suitable for the work you want done.

"Which of the two rooms would you like, sir?" "Oh, either. I

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don't care."

The news did not shock either of them.

My wife and I watched him make the parcel but he took no notice of either of us.

Have you seen either of your parents today?

There is a train at 11.30 and one at 12.05. Either train will get you to Oxford in time for the meeting.

In the above meaning either is mostly used as a noun pronoun, though occasionally it occurs in the function of an attribute (see the last example above).

Either may also mean 'each of two'. In this meaning it is used as an adjective pronoun and mostly found in literary English.

e.g. He came down the road with a girl on either arm. There was a lamp at either end of the street. The houses on either side were tall and big.

Neither means 'not the one nor the other'.

e.g. That evening my mother spoke with such quiet anger that Aunt Milly was intimidated. After that neither of them was ever willing to take up the subject.

The first time we met after the ball, neither of us said a word that was not trivial.

My friend and I came to the end of our last walk. "We shall meet again," she said. "If not next year, then some other time." Neither of us believed it.

You can keep your astonishment and your mortification for yourself. I feel neither.

I have travelled by both trains and neither train had a restaurant car.

Neither brother has been abroad.

§ 31. The pronoun both is used as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. It is plural in meaning and applied only to two persons or things.

e.g. Two men were injured in the accident. Both are now recovering in hospital.

I ordered only one of the two books, but now I think I'll take

both.

Dirk went up to her, and took both her hands.

I made plans for the future that ignored both my parents

and my studies.

I invited one of the brothers but both of them came. Note the possible place of both in the sentence.

e.g. Both (the) men were interested in the job. Both these children are mine.

These children are both mine. Both my children are boys.

Both of them agreed that the matter had better be dropped. They both accepted the invitation.

They have both been invited.

§ 32. The pronouns much and many are used as noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns.

Much means 'a large amount'. As a noun pronoun, it takes a singular verb. As an adjective pronoun, it modifies only uncount-

able nouns,

e.g. Much of his life was lived inside himself.

"I don't suppose you had much to eat all day," said my mother. You haven't much time if you want to catch the train.

I hope you haven't brought much luggage.

Many means 'a large number'. As a noun pronoun, it takes a plural verb. As an adjective pronoun, it modifies only countable nouns in the plural.

e.g. There were lots of people on the beach. Many of them were holidaymakers.

"I'm marking the children's compositions." "Have you many left?"

I haven't many friends now.

You haven't made many mistakes this time.

There is a strong tendency in present-day English to use much and many, particularly when they function as adjective pronouns, only in interrogative and negative sentences and in object clauses introduced by if or whether.

e.g. I had not very much advice to give him.

I did not meet many English people who could speak foreign languages.

Did you have much rain on your holidays? Do you know many people in London?

I doubt whether there'll be much time for seeing the sights. The train leaves at six o'clock.

I wonder if many people will come to the party.

Thus He has much time, although apparently correct grammatically, is hardly ever seen or heard in present-day English. A lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, a large number of, a good many, a great many and the like replace much and many in affirmative sentences.

e.g. There is a lot of work to do.

I know plenty of boys in other schools had achieved the same results as I had.

She knows lots of girls who go out dancing every Saturday. He has done a great deal of research on the subject.

A large number of people were gathered at the cafe.

My mother's family had been different in a good many ways from my father's.

A great many mistakes have been made by nearly everybody. Much and many can be used in affirmative sentences in the

following cases:

a)when they are used as the subject of the sentence, or modify it,

e.g. Much depends on what answer he will give. Much of what he says is true.

Many think that the situation will improve.

Much time would be saved if you planned your work properly. Many people like to spend their spare time working in their gardens.

b) when much and many are modified by adverbs of degree, e.g. so, too, as and how,

e.g. No, I won't do it. It's too much trouble.

There are too many mistakes in your exercises.

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You can have as much fruit as you want.

c) when much is used alone as a noun pronoun in the function of an object,

e.g. My mother meant much to me.

I would give much to know what he is thinking now.

Note. Occasionally we find such synonymous expressions of much and many as a world of, heaps of, oceans of and the like. They are used in colloquial English for emphasis,

e.g. I have heaps of news. When can we talk?

Much and many change for degrees of comparison. They are more and most.

e.g. He made more progress than I had expected.

I found more letters lying on his table that morning. He knew more about me than I thought.

Most work was done in my father's office. Most people hold the same opinion as you do.

The most I can do for you is to give you a letter of recommendation. Most of his money came from selling his landscapes.

Most of the delegates voted against the proposal. Most of his relatives lived in the country.

§ 33, The pronouns little and few are used as noun pronouns

and as adjective pronouns.

Little means 'a small amount'. As a noun pronoun, it takes a singular verb. As an adjective pronoun, it is used with uncountable nouns.

e.g. Little was known of his life when he was alive.

My story was a record of hard work and little adventure.

Few means 'a small number'. As a noun pronoun, it takes a plural verb. As an adjective pronoun, it is used with countable nouns in the plural.

e.g. Yet few have been found to deny the man's greatness. Very few decisions were ever taken in that department.

Both little and few have a negative implication — they mean 'not enough'.

e.g. The shipwrecked sailors had no food and little water. Few people would agree with you.

A little and a few, which are to be treated as set phrases, have a positive meaning. They mean 'some though not much (many)'.

e.g. He earns a little money and can live quite comfortably on it. I suggested that he should get a few grapes and some bread.

Compare:

e.g. I know little about painting. (= almost nothing) I know a little about painting. (= something)

There is little change in his appearance. (= almost no change) There is a little change in his appearance. (== some change) Few birds can be seen in that place. (= almost none)

A few birds can be seen in that place. (= some birds)

He has few friends and lives a lonely life. (= almost none) He has a few friends who call to see him quite frequently. (= some friends)

Little and few change for degrees of comparison. Their forms are: little — less — least

few — fewer — fewest

e.g. Please make less noise.

George gives me the least trouble.

There were fewer people in the bus today. Who has made the fewest mistakes?

Reciprocal Pronouns

§ 34. There are two reciprocal pronouns in English: each other and one another. They show that something is done mutually. Both pronouns are mainly used in the function of an object (direct, indirect or prepositional) in the sentence,

e.g. I knew that my two aunts bitterly disliked each other.

They ha d co me to understand one another, and he,

without anything being said.

But he was a little puzzled by the behaviour of Blanche and Strickland towards one another.

As is seen from the above examples, both each other and one another can be used when speaking of two persons. However, when more than two persons are meant, only one another is usually used.

e.g. When he entered the cafe he saw the people wink at one another.

Each other and one another can be used in the genitive case, e.g. They had not met so long that they had forgotten each other's names.

In their letters they made it a rule to inquire after one another's relatives.

Interrogative Pronouns

§ 35. The interrogative pronouns are: who (whom), whose, what, which, how much and how many. They are all used in forming questions.

§ 36. The pronoun who asks about persons. It does not distinguish gender or number. It may be masculine or feminine, singular or plural in meaning. Who is the nominative case and it is mainly used as the subject of the sentence.

e.g. Who is coming with me?

Who are the people over there?

The objective case of who is whom which is used as an object in the sentence. It may be a direct (a) or prepositional object (b).

e.g. a) Whom did you see there? Whom does he suspect?

b) To whom did you give the message? Of whom are you thinking?

By whom was it done?

But whom is the literary form and is preferred in writing. In conversation it is replaced by who. When who happens to be used as a prepositional object, the preposition is placed at the end of the sentence.

: PRESSI ( HERSON )

e.g. Who did you see there? Who does he suspect?

Who did you give the message to? Who are you thinking of?

Who was it done by?

Note the idiomatic uses of who in the following sentences:

e.g. It was so dark that I couldn't tell who's who. (= could not

tell one person from the other)

You'll find his name in Who's Who. (= a reference book on contemporary outstanding people)

§ 37. The pronoun whose is a possessive interrogative pronoun. It is used as an adjective pronoun, mostly in the function of an attribute, though occasionally it occurs as a predicative too.

e.g. Whose room is it going to be? Whose is the room going to be?

In whose car do you prefer to go? (Whose car do you prefer to go in?)

§ 38. The pronoun what may be used as a noun pronoun and

as an adjective pronoun.

When it serves as a noun, it asks after things. It may be singular or plural in meaning. It may be used as the subject, a predicative or an object in the sentence. It has no case forms.

e.g. What's this?

What are those strange objects in the distance? What is his telephone number?

What is your name? What do you mean?

About what are you going to ask him?

It should be noted that in the case of a prepositional object it is more usual to place the preposition at the end of the sentence in present-day English.

e.g. What are you going to ask him about? What are you laughing at?

Special attention should be paid to the use of what asking about a person's profession,

e.g. "What is the man your father is talking to?" "He is a lawyer."

Compare it with a wh -question asking about the identity of a person.

e.g. "Who is the man your father is talking to?" "He is Mr Clapperton, our new neighbour."

What can also be used in asking about actions, e.g. "What are you doing?" "I'm cleaning the car."

Note the idiomatic uses of what in the following sentences: e.g. "What is he like?" "He is tall, dark and handsome." ('

?')

"What is he like as a pianist?" "Oh, he is not very good. (' ...?')

Ben suddenly looked at his watch. "What about your dentist?" he asked, (' ?')

What about a cigarette? (' ?')

What about something to eat? (' -

?')

What of it? (' ?') So what? (' ?')

He's a clever fellow, he knows what's what, (' ,

'; ' ')

When what is used as an adjective pronoun it is also invariable and serves as an attribute to nouns denoting both persons and things.

e.g. What languages do you know? What play did you see last?

What man would have done more? What feelings do such stories excite?

What artists are going to be exhibited this autumn?

To ask after the kind or sort to which a person or thing belongs, synonymous set phrases what kind of and what sort of are used instead of what.

e.g. What kind of man is he? (' ?' '

?')

What sort of chocolate do you like best? (' ,

')

What kind of house have they bought? (' ')

What sort of proposition do you want to discuss with me? (' '; ' ')

What preceding a noun may also be used at the head of an exclamatory sentence. (This what is sometimes called the exclamatory what.)

e.g. What a stupid thing he has said!

What splendid pictures they have in their collection! What marvellous news he brought!

What fun we had yesterday!

§ 39. The pronoun which is used as a noun pronoun and as an adjective pronoun. It is used of persons and things and is invariable in form. It can have the function of the subject, an object and an attribute in the sentence.

The use of which is more restricted than that of what because which is selective — it selects one or more out of a definite number of persons or things.

e.g. Which will you have, tea or coffee? Which way shall we go?

Which pen does the cap belong to? Which author are you more interested in?

Which students have answered all the questions correctly?

As a result of its selective meaning, which is often followed b an of-phrase.

e.g. Which of your friends will you invite to the party? Which of them said that?

Which of his books are you reading now?

: PRESSI ( HERSON )