Grammatika_sovremennogo_angliyskogo_y
.pdfCompare the use of what and which in the following sentences:
e.g. What TV programmes do you usually watch? Which of them
is your favorite one?
What examinations are you going to take this term? Which of them do you find most difficult?
What car have you? Which car is yours?
§ 40. The pronouns how much and how many are used as noun pronouns and as adjective pronouns.
How much asks about the amount of something and is used of or with only uncountable nouns.
e.g. How much did you find out? How much money do you need?
How many asks about the number of persons and things and is used of or with only countable nouns,
e.g. "There are several people sitting at the fireplace." "How many
can you count?"
How many people took part in the experiment? How many invitations have been sent out?
§ 41. The interrogative pronouns who, what and which may be made emphatic by adding ever. Ever here means something like 'on earth', 'in the world'. Depending on the situation, questions introduced by the emphatic forms in -ever express different emotions, such as surprise, anger, despair, indignation, etc. The use of the form in -ever is distinctly colloquial,
e.g. Whoever (who ever) can be calling at this time of the night? Whoever (who ever) heard of such a silly idea?
Whatever (what ever) were you thinking of to suggest such a
plan?
He gets up at five o'clock every morning. What ever for? Conjunctive Pronouns
§42. The pronouns who {whom), whose, what, which, how much, how many and that are used to connect subordinate clauses with the principal clause. Owing to their auxiliary function they are called conjunctive pronouns. At the same time they all have an independent syntactic function in the subordinate clause.
e.g. Do you know who has bought the house? (subject) He always said exactly what he thought, (object)
I ' m surprised to see how much he had done in so short a time, (object)
I walked past a row of houses whose front doors opened onto the pavement, (attribute)
You'll never guess what present I want him to give me. (at tribute)
I had to find out what he was. (predicative)
When conjunctive pronouns are used in the function of a prepositional object, the preposition is generally placed at the end of the clause.
e.g. The man who(m) I spoke to is my neighbour.
You are the very person that I have been looking for. Who it was done by is for us to find out.
As I walked up the endless stairs of the house in which Strickland lived, I confess I was a little excited.
She obtained some opinions which later I realized were entirely sensible.
She had never owned a dress which her girlfriends would consider expensive.
Note. With a collective noun used as the antecedent the relative who is used when the individuals forming the group are meant, and the relative which when the group as whole is meant.
e.g. He wanted to interview someone from the team who were now resting. He wanted to interview someone from the team which was winning.
Which is also used if the antecedent of the attributive clause is the whole of the principal clause.
e.g. That day she took her share of the meal, which nowadays she rarely did.
He invited us to dinner, which was very kind of him.
The decision was postponed, which was exactly what he wanted.
The attributive clauses of the above type are always separated from their principal clause by a comma (see the examples above). The relative pronoun which in this type of attributive clauses is rendered in Russian as .
Which preceded by the preposition of is parallel in meaning to whose when the latter is used of things.
Cf. We crossed the river the current of which was very rapid. We crossed the river whose current was very rapid.
That is used of both persons and things, singular and plural.
e.g. You are the very people that I've been meaning to speak to. He is not a man that can understand such things.
That was all the education that she had had during her girlhood.
She had a wit that was irresistible.
The actress told him of the plays that she had been in and what parts she had had.
That (not who or which or what) is used: a) after most indefinite pronouns,
e.g. Have you got all that you need?
Sylvia had always had everything that she wanted. There is not much that can be done.
Fred looked about the room, trying to discover something that might remind him of Sally.
He never says anything that is worth listening to.
b) after nouns modified by an adjective in the superlative degree as well as by first or last.
e.g. Yesterday was one of the coldest days that I've ever known. He has written the best book that I've ever read on the subject.
It was the first time that he heard of the episode.
c) after a noun modified by same,
e.g. She wore the same dress that I had seen her in at her sister's wedding.
d) when the antecedent is both a person and a thing,
two million workers (= 2,000,000 workers), millions of workers.
In the examples under (a) the exact number of persons or things is given; in the examples under (b) hundred, thousand and million do not indicate any exact number but only a great multitude of persons or things.
Ordinal numerals indicate order: first, second, third, fourth, tenth, twelfth, eighteenth, twenty-fifth, forty-seventh, a hun dredth, two hundred and thirty-ninth, etc.
(For the use of articles with ordinal numerals see "Articles", § ll.)
Note 1. Dates are read in the following way:
1st September, 1944 — the first of September (September the first), nineteen {hundred and) forty four, 5th January, 1807 — the fifth of January {January the fifth), eighteen hundred and seven.
Note 2. Common fractions are read in the following way: — 2/3= two thirds;
3/8 = three eights; 5/12 = five twelfths.
Decimal fractions are read as 3.5 = three point five 4.76 = four point seventy six,
8.03— eight point naught three,
§2. Both cardinal and ordinal numerals can have certain functions of nouns (a) and of adjectives (b) in the sentence.
e.g. a) Three of the schoolboys fell ill with scarlet fever. There were four of us there.
"Will you have another cup of tea?" "No, thank you. I've had two."
There were three questions in the test. The second was particularly difficult.
Jane was the first to wake up.
"Which exercise would you like to do first?" "I think I'd begin with the third."
b) We had three visitors that day. The first visitor to arrive was my aunt Milly.
ADVERBS
§ 1. Adverbs are a miscellaneous class of words which is not easy to define. Some adverbs resemble pronouns, e.g. here, there, then, where. Others have a lot in common with prepositions, e.g. about, since, in, before, over. Still others are derived, from adjectives, e.g. seriously, slowly, remarkably.
Adverbs have diverse lexical meanings and differ from each other in their structure and role in the sentence.
Structurally, some adverbs are single words (e.g. fast, well, clearly, somehow, nowhere, sideways, southward(s), etc.), others are phrases (e.g. at last, all along, at first, in front, from above, since then, till later, for once, the day after tomorrow, all of a sudden, as a result, etc.).
Most adverbs serve to modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs in the sentence.
e.g. He spoke resolutely.
e.g. I quite agree with you. He is very clever.
He did it quickly enough.
Adverbs of degree or intensifiers may be subdivided into three semantic groups:
a) emphasizers (emphasizing the truth of the communication): actually, at all, clearly, definitely, indeed, just, literally, plainly, really, simply, etc.
e.g. I really don't know what he wants.
They literally tore his arguments to pieces. I simply don't believe you.
I just can't understand it.
You haven't done it well at all.
b) amplifiers (expressing a high degree): absolutely, altogether, badly, bitterly, completely, deeply, entirely, extremely, (by) far, fully, greatly, heartily, much, perfectly, quite, terribly, thoroughly, utterly, very, etc.
e.g. I thoroughly disapprove of his methods. He completely ignored my request.
He needs a warm coat badly. They are very close friends.
Your work is not altogether satisfactory.
c) downtoners (lowering the effect): a bit, almost, barely, enough, hardly, kind of, (a) little, moderately, more or less, nearly, partly, quite, rather, scarcely, slightly, somewhat, sort of, sufficiently, etc.
e.g. I know him slightly.
I partly agree with you. I kind of like him.
I don't like his attitude a bit. I almost believed him.
6)focusing adverbs, which can be of two kinds:
a)restrictive: alone, exactly, just, merely, only, precisely, purely, simply, especially, etc.
e.g. I am simply asking the time.
My father alone could help me at the time.
b) additive: again, also, either, equally, even, too, etc.
e.g. He didn't answer my letter again. I, too, am very busy at the moment.
7) viewpoint adverbs: economically, morally, politically, scientifically, weatkerwise, etc. Such adverbs are understood to mean 'from a moral (political, scientific) point of view*.
e.g. Geographically and linguistically, these islands are closer to the mainland than to the neighbouring islands.
Economically, the project is bound to fail.
8) attitudinal adverbs which express the speaker's comment on the content of what he is saying. Such adverbs can be of two kinds:
a) adverbs expressing a comment on the truth-value of what is being said, indicating the extent to which the speaker believes what he is saying is true: admittedly, allegedly, apparently, certainly, decidedly, definitely, doubtless, maybe, obviously, perhaps,
As is seen from the above examples, the conjunctive adverbs can introduce attributive, predicative, subject and object clauses.
The adverb how, in addition to the above functions, can also be placed at the head of an exclamatory sentence. In this case it is often followed by an adjective or an adverb but it may also be used alone. This how is sometimes called the exclamatory how.
e.g. How unfair grown-ups are! Oh, how the baby cries!
Forms of Adverbs
§ 4. A considerable number of adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ly, e.g. calm, — calmly, slow — slowly, kind — kindly, etc.
Spelling notes:
a)adjectives ending in -y change it to -i, e.g. gay — gaily, busy — busily, happy — happily, but: dry — dryly/drily;
b)adjectives ending in -able/ible drop the final e and add -y, e.g. capable — capably, suitable — suitably, sensible — sensibly etc;
c)adjectives ending in -l double it, e.g. skilful — skilfully, final — finally, beautiful — beautifully.
But adverbs cannot be formed from adjectives already ending in -ly, such as manly, friendly, silly, lively, fatherly, etc. An adverbial phrase is used in this case instead of an adverb, e.g. in a silly way, in a friendly manner, etc.
Some adverbs, however, have the same form as the corresponding adjective.
e.g. He walked very fast.
The road runs straight for miles. He got up very early.
He didn't try hard enough. I didn't wait for him long. He spelled my name wrong.
Some other adverbs have two forms: the adjective form and the form in -ly. In most cases the two forms differ in meaning.
e.g. He came late.
I haven't seen him lately.
The time is drawing near for our departure. I nearly missed my train.
He works hard.
He hardly ever works.
It is pretty early.
She was prettily dressed.
There is also a group of adverbs with which the form without -ly is mainly found in set phrases where it often undergoes some change of meaning.
e.g. They travelled cheaply.
He bought (sold, got) the car cheap.
She brushed the floor cleanly.
The bullet went clean (= right) through his shoulder.
He spoke loudly and clearly. Stand clear of the door.