49.Types of transcription.

50.Emphatic and unemphatic speech. The ways of emphasizing the utterance.

51Observe the functioning of logical stress. Shift the nucleus and comment on the change of meaning.

Did you telephone George last night?

52.Physiological and acoustic nature of vowels and consonants. The inventory of the English phonemes.

53.Stress-timing and syllable-timing in languages. English rhythm.

54.Define pitch-and-stress sections and make a tonogram of the following sentence:

There’s a lovely shop selling clothes round the corner.

55. English vocalic system. The classification of vowels.

56. Monolingualism, bilingualism, diglossia, code-switching. The problem of interference.

57. Say the sentence with different types of head:

You can’t imagine what your help has meant to me.

58. English consonantal system. The classification of consonants.

59. Democratization of RP. Estuary English (EE).Upspeak.

60. Make the following sentence emphatic:

I could hardly believe my eyes

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==Phonetic transcription versus orthography==

The [[pronunciation]] of words in many languages, as distinct from their written form ([[orthography]]), has undergone significant change over time. Pronunciation can also vary greatly among [[dialect]]s of a language. Traditional orthography in some languages, particularly [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]], often differs from the pronunciation. For example, the words "bough" and "trough" do not rhyme in English, even though their spellings might suggest they do. In French, for example, the 's' at the end of words is usually [[Silent letter|silent]] ("militaire" is pronounced the same as "militaires") unless followed by a word beginning in a vowel. In the orthography of most [[European languages]], the fact that many letters are pronounced or silent depending on contexts causes difficulties in determining the appropriate pronunciation, especially in the cases of English, [[Irish language|Irish]], and French. However, in other languages, such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], there is a more consistent—though still imperfect—relationship between orthography and pronunciation.

Therefore, phonetic transcription can provide a function that orthography cannot. It displays a one-to-one relationship between [[symbols]] and [[phoneme|sounds]], unlike traditional writing systems. Phonetic transcription allows us to step outside of orthography and examine differences in pronunciation between dialects within a given language, as well as to identify changes in pronunciation that may take place over time.

The standard phonetic and phonemic transcription alphabet is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). In computer work, the IPA is often encoded using the SAMPA code (Speech Assessment Methodologies Phonetic Alphabet), which is a human and computer-readable encoding of the alphabet which uses plain ASCII letters without special character fonts.

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The semantic function of the nucleus. Emphatic and unemphatic speech

Nuclear tones may express the attitudes of a speaker to what he / she says. So nuclei can perform certain semantic function. The meanings of the nuclear tones are difficult to specify. A falling-rising tone may combine the meaning of “certainty” with the meaning of “incompleteness”. As for rising-falling and rising-falling-rising tones, they add refinement to speech, that is why they are not considered absolutely essential tones for the foreign learner to acquire. Low-Level tone is very characteristic of reading poetry and Mid-Level tone is particularly common in spontaneous speech functionally replacing the rising tone.

In the table below you will find some generalized meanings of principal nuclear tones and attitudes they may express.

Nucleus	Generalized meaning				Possible attitudes
Low Fall	finalality, categoricity, completeness, certainty, independence				neutral or grim I ̖know him.
High Fall					lively interest, personal concern I `know him.
Rise Fall					surprise, delight I ̂know him.
Low Rise	non-finality, incompleteness, uncertainty, dependence			hesitation, disbelief, lack of interest I ̗know him.
	(may bear different implications in different situations)
High Rise					asking for repetition, searching for information I ́know him.
Fall-Rise					warning, apology I ̌know him.
Rise-Fall-Rise					optimism, enthusiasm Do you ~know him? - Yes.
Level					uncertainty, indifference I >know him.

It is interesting to trace how the implication in the following sentences is changing with the change of the nuclear tone:

־What’s your ̖name? (= Tell me your name, I’ll put it down.) – formal, unemotional

־What’s your ̗name? (=You see, I’m friendly to you, do trust me…) – warm, sympathetic

־What’s your ́name? (=Sorry, I didn’t catch your name, will you repeat it, please?) – asking for repetition:

Thus, we should stress the idea that intonation is more than just the melody of speech. It can express the attitude of the speaker but it can also contribute to the actual meaning of an utterance. As that, intonation also carries important semantic functions and it’s important to be aware of the strong link between intonation and attitude, even if it’s difficult to provide rules here.

The ways of emphasizing the utterance

When a speaker just wants to convey a piece of information (to state some fact) the utterance sounds neutral and unemphatic. When a speaker desires to express his/her own attitude to what is being said, one of the following techniques may be used to emphasize the utterance:

1) Widening or narrowing of the voice range:

e.g. It 'isn’t e'xactly what I `wanted.

2) modifying the head of the intonation contour (making it scandent, sliding, ascending, level etc.)

3) using contrasting pre-heads and heads:

cf. I ˌdidn’t ̗like it. ־I ˌdidn’t ̗like it.

4) increasing the degree of prominence on all stressed words:

e.g. It `isn’t e`xactly what I `wanted.

5) using the accidental rise of the voice pitch:

e.g. I ˌsaw that I was hnot ̗welcome.

6) omitting all the stresses except for the nuclear one:

e.g. What are you going to`do about it?

7) using High Fall, Rise-Fall or Fall-Rise on the important words:

e.g. You look ̂lovely, my dear!

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Logical Stress

a means of emphasizing a meaningful unit of an utterance. Superimposed on the obligatory word stress, logical stress usually intensifies the phonetic features of a word, emphasizing information that is new or disputable for one of the interlocutors. For example, in the phrase “Your sister came” logical stress may emphasize any one of the three words. The same may be achieved graphically (italics, etc.), lexically (“none other than,” “just now”), or syntactically (by word order and emphatic constructions). Logical stress is one of the methods of actual division of a sentence

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