• 3. Classifications of phraseological units

• 3.1. Semantic classification of phraseological units (V.V. Vinogradov)

is based on the motivation of the unit

1. Phraseological fusions are units whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of their component parts. The meaning of PFs is unmotivated at the present stage of language development, e.g.

red tape (бюрократизм, волокита),

a mare’s nest (иллюзия, нечто несуществующее),

My aunt! (вот те на!, вот так штука!, ну и ну!). The meaning of the components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole;

2. Phrasological unities are expressions the meaning of which can be deduced from the meanings of their components; the meaning of the whole is based on the transferred meanings of the components, e.g.

to show one’s teeth (to be unfriendly),

to stand to one’s guns (to refuse to change one’s opinion), etc.

They are motivated expressions.

3. Phraseological collocations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically, e.g. to meet requirements, to attain success.

In this group of PUs some substitutions are possible which do not destroy the meaning of the metaphoric element, e.g. to meet the needs, to meet the demand, to meet the necessity; to have success, to lose success.

These substitutions are not synonymical and the meaning of the whole changes, while the meaning of the verb meet and the noun success are kept intact.

• 3.2. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS (A.I. SMIRNITSKY)

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky classified PUs as highly idiomatic set expressions functioning as word equivalents, and characterized by their semantic and grammatical unity. He suggested three classes of stereotyped phrases:

1. traditional phrases (nice distinction, rough sketch;

2. phraseological combinations (to fall in love, to get up);

3. idioms (to wash one’s dirty linen in public);

• The second group (phraseological combinations) fall into two subgroups:

1. one-top phraseological units, which were compared with derived words;

   1. verb-adverb PUs of the type to give up, e.g. to bring up, to try out, to look up, to drop in, etc.

   2. PUs of the type to be tired, e.g. to be surprised, to be up to, etc.

   3. Prepositional substantative units, e.g. by heart.

2. two-top phraseological units, which were compared with compound words.

1. attributive-nominal, e.g. brains trust, white elephant, blind alley. Units of this type function as noun equivalents;

2. verb-nominal phrases, e.g. to know the ropes, to take place, etc.

3. phraseological repetitions, e.g. ups and downs , rough and ready, flat as a pancake. They function as adverbs or adjectives equivalents;

4. adverbial multi-top units, e.g. every other day.

• STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS (A.V. Koonin)

Prof. Kunin distinguishes: phraseological units, phraseomatic units and borderline (mixed) cases. phraseological units have fully or partly transferred meaning, while phraseomatic units are used in their literal meaning. Phraseological and phraseomatic units are characterized by phraseological stability that distinguishes them from free phrases and compound words.

• Prof. A.V. Kunin develops the theory of stability which consists of the following aspects:

1. stability of usage, i.e. phraseological units are reproduced ready-made, not created in speech;

2. lexical stability, i.e. the components of phraseological units are either irreplaceable or partially replaceable within the bounds of phraseological variance:

Lexical: a skeleton in the cupboard / closet (family’s secret), a blind pig / tiger (to sell alcohol illegally);

Grammatical: to be in deep water / waters (to be in a dificult situation), a stony heart – a heart of stone (a stern or cruel nature);

Positional: a square peg in a round hole – a round peg in a square hole (a person in a situation unsuited to their abilities or character), to dot the i’s and cross the t’s – to cross one’s t’s and dot one’s i’s (ensure that all details are correct);

Quantitative: Tom, Dick and Harry – every Tom, Dick and Harry (anybody and everybody);

Mixed variants: raise/stir up the nest of hornets’ nest about one’s ears – to arouse/stir up the nest of hornets (to destroy the nest of wasps).

3. Semantic stability is based on lexical stability of phraseological units. In spite of occasional changes the meaning of a phraseological unit is preserved. It may only be specified, made more precise, weakened or strengthened.

4. Syntactic stability.

• The characteristic features of phraseological units are:

1. ready-made reproduction,

2. structural divisibility,

3. morphological stability,

4. permanence of lexical composition,

5. semantic unity,

6. syntactic fixity.

• Prof. A.V. Koonin’ definition: ‘a phraseplogical unit is a stable word-group with wholly or partially transferred meaning.’

Phraseological units are subdivided into 4 classes according to the function in communication determined by structural-semantic characteristics.

• Functional classification

1. nominative phraseplogical units, standing for certain notions: a bull in a china shop;

2. nominative-communicative phraseplogical units, standing for certain notions in the Active voice, and may be used in Passive constructions: to cross the Rubicon – the Rubicon is crossed!

3. interjectional phraseplogical units, standing for certain notions interjections: a pretty (nice) kettle of fish! For crying out loud!

4. Communicative phraseological units standing for sentences (proverbs and sayings): Still waters run deep. The world is a nice place.

• Communicative phraseological units, expressing statement:

1. A proverb is a collection of words (phrase or sentence that states a general truth or gives advice:

Idleness is the root of all evil.

A penny saved is a penny gained.

The pen is mightier than the sword.

Ask no questions, hear no lies.

Silence is something an answer.

• Distinctive features of proverbs:

1. Structural dissimilarity

(cf: George liked her for she never put on airs (predicate).

Big bugs like him care nothing about small fry like ourselves (a) subject, b) prepositional object).

Proverbs, if viewed in their structural aspect, are sentences, and so cannot be used in the way in which phraseological units are used in the above examples.