2. Values

Intercultural communication varies depending on cultural values. For example, the orientation toward nature (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961) plays an important role in intercultural communication. Eastern societies believe people should live in harmony with nature and worship it (China, Japan) or even subjugate to nature (India, South America). The Eastern societies believe that nature and life have been created by God and thus they must protect it. On the other hand, Western societies believe they can control nature. Thus, Eastern societies regard Western societies as unintelligent and biased. Orientation toward nature may cause communication problems between Western and Eastern societies. The masculinity (MAS) dimension (Hofstede, 1980, 2001) distinguishes between cultures, in which there is assertive versus cooperative communication. In the highly masculine cultures (Japan, Hungary, Austria) members value achievement, growth, independence and living to work. Communication focuses on extrinsic values, performance, ambition, achieving excellence, money and material possessions. Communication style is more aggressive and formal. There is lack of care for others and the quality of life. People are stressed, and women and men are treated differently. In the high feminine cultures (Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark), societies that are oriented toward other people and their welfare, focus on intrinsic values, quality of life, family, and harmony.

Women and men are treated equally. Communication style is softer and more casual. Intercultural communication style also depends on orientations toward activity (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). Members of the Western cultures that are doing and action oriented focus conversations on tasks to be completed and goals to be achieved. Members of the Eastern cultures which are being oriented and emphasize passivity, the importance of people, and social harmony at the expense of efficiency, take pleasure in conversation with friends, avoid confrontation, and are tolerant and humble. In the doing-oriented societies, (the United States) decisions are driven by economic factors and are task oriented; in the being-oriented societies decisions are more emotional and people oriented. Also, members of the societies who value other people highly and enjoy warm relationships with others give more gifts and put more effort into gift selection, than people who exhibit more self-centered andself-concerned values (Beatty et al., 1991). For example, in France gifts should be open and shown, whereas in Japan gifts should be acknowledged and put away(DeMente, 1991a). Societies that are becoming oriented believe in evolution and change. The focus of communication in these societies is on innovation, change, and improvements.

Another cultural dimension which affects intercultural communication is uncertainty avoidance (UAI) – the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). In the high uncertainty avoidance cultures (Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, Japan) people avoid conflict in communication, seek consensus in conversation, and security through written rules, regulations, and face saving. Members of these societies are anxious, aggressive, emotionally restrained and loyal to group decisions. They are often nationalistic and suspicious toward foreigners. In the low uncertainty avoidance cultures (Singapore, Denmark, Sweden, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, India, the United States, New Zealand), people tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty in conversations, talk about new ideas, and need few rules as possible to guide them in communication. They believe conflicts and disagreements are natural. They accept foreigners with different ideas and are optimistic about the future.

The power distance (PDI) dimension – the extent to which a society accepts the unequal distribution of social power (Hofstede, 1980, 2001) also influences intercultural communication. In the high power distance cultures (Malaysia, Guatemala, Panama, Philippines, Mexico, China) societies that hold that people are not equal and that everyone has a rightful place, people obey the rules of authority and supervisors; decisions are made autocratically. People use separate forms of communication style, forms of language and ways of addressing those from different social classes. In low power distance cultures (Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, Sweden) societies in which there is no social hierarchy people consult with each other, use the same communication style for everybody, and focus on independence and personality.