Meyer R., Koehler J., Homburg A. Explosives. Wiley-VCH, 2002 / Explosives 5th ed by Koehler, Meyer, and Homburg (2002)

Cyclonite	70

oxidation. As soon as this problem and the attendant dangers had been mastered, industrial-scale production became possible, and during the Second World War Cyclonite was manufactured in large quantities on both sides, using several mutually independent chemical methods.

S-H process (inventor: Schnurr): continuous nitration of hexamethylenetetramine using highly concentrated nitric acid, accompanied by a decomposition reaction under liberation of nitrous gases, without destruction of the Cyclonite formed. The reaction mixture is then filtered to separate the product from the waste acid, followed by stabilization of the product by boiling under pressure and, if required, recrystallization.

K process (inventor: Knöffler): an increased yield is obtained by the addition of ammonium nitrate to the nitration mixture of hexamethylene tetramine and nitric acid, followed by warming. The formaldehyde as a by-product forms more hexamethylenetetramine with the added ammonium nitrate and is converted by the nitric acid into Cyclonite.

KA process (inventors: Knöffler and Apel; in USA: Bachmann): hexamethylenetetramine dinitrate is reacted with ammonium nitrate and a small amount of nitric acid in an acetic anhydride medium. Cyclonite is formed in a similar manner as in the E process. The waste acetic acid thus formed is concentrated, subjected to the so-called ketene process, recycled, and the regenerated acetic anhydride is re-used.

E process (inventor: Eble): paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate are reacted in an acetic anhydride medium with formation of Cyclonite (precursor of KA process).

W process (inventor: Wolfram): potassium amidosulfonate and formaldehyde are reacted to give potassium methyleneamidosulfonate (CH2 = N-SO3K), which is then nitrated to Cyclonite by a nitric acid-sulfuric acid mixture.

Phlegmatized and pressed Cyclonite is used as a highly brisant material for the manufacture of W Booster and W Hollow Charges. Nonphlegmatized Cyclonite in combination with TNT is also used as a pourable mixture for hollow charges and brisant explosive charges (W Compositions B); mixtures of Cyclonite with aluminum powder are used as torpedo charges (Hexotonal, Torpex, Trialen). Cyclonite may also be used as an additive in the manufacture of smokeless powders.

In manufacturing explosive charges which are required to have a certain mechanical strength or rubber-elastic toughness, Cyclonite is incorporated into curable plastic materials such as polyurethanes, polybutadiene or polysulfide and is poured into molds (W Plastic Explosives).

71	Cyclotrimethylene Trinitrosamine
Specifications
melting point: at least	200 °C = 392°F
for products prepared
by the acetic anhydride
method, at least	190 °C = 374°F
acidity, as HNO3:
not more than	0.05 %
acetone-insolubles:
not more than	0.025 %
ashes: not more than	0.03 %
sandy matter:	none

Cyclotol

The name given to RDX – TNT mixtures with compositions varying between 50 : 50 and 75 : 25 (W Compositions B).

Cyclotrimethylene Trinitrosamine

trinitrosotrimethylenetriamine; Cyclotrimethylentrinitrosamin; cyclotrimethyl`ene trinitrosamine

pale yellow crystals empirical formula: C3H6N6O3 molecular weight: 174.1

energy of formation: +417.9 kcal/kg = +1748.4 kJ/kg enthalpy of formation: +392.4 kcal/kg = +1641.7 kJ/kg oxygen balance: – 55.1 %

nitrogen content: 48.28 %

volume of explosion gases: 996 l/kg heat of explosion

(H2O liq.): 1081 kcal/kg = 4525 kJ/kg (H2O gas): 1051 kcal/kg = 4397 kJ/kg

density: 1.508 g/cm3

melting point: 102 °C = 216°F

heat of fusion: 5.2 kcal/kg = 22 kJ/kg detonation velocity, confined:

7300 m/s = 24 000 ft/s at r = 1.49 g/cm3

Cyclotrimethylene trinitrosamine is soluble in acetone, alcohol chloroform and benzene, and is sparingly soluble in water.

Dangerous Goods Regulations	72

This nitroso compound, which is related to Cyclonite, is prepared by treating hexamethylenetetramine with alkali metal nitrites in a dilute acid solution.

Since concentrated acid is not required in the preparation, large-scale manufacture of the product, under the name of R-salt, was under active consideration at one time during the Second World War. However, even though easily prepared and powerful, the explosive has not yet been used in practice owing to its limited chemical and thermal stability.

Dangerous Goods Regulations

Gefahrgutverordnungen

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Rail (GGVE)

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Road (GGVS}

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Sea (GGVSea)

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Inland Waterways (GGVBinsch)

The Dangerous Goods Regulations are internationally harmonised regulations (W ADR, W RID, W IMDG Code, W ADNR, W ICAO TI) for the transport of dangerous goods. All substances and articles that have defined explosive properties are assigned to Class 1 “Explosives and Articles with Explosive Substance”. To classify into one of the 6 Risk Classes (sub-classes of Class 1), the hazardous property of the substance or article is studied, including in its dispatch packing. This examination takes place in accordance with the test methods described in the “Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods; Manual of Tests and Criteria, United Nations”. The W BAM (Federal German Materials Testing Laboratory, W BICT for the military area) is the competent authority in Germany for classifying explosives, detonators, propellants, pyrotechnical mixtures and articles.

The purpose of the sub-classes 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 is to characterise the explosive properties of the substances and articles in Class 1 with regard to their activity and to some extent their sensitivity as well. The 13 Compatibility Groups A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, N and S reflect mainly the specific type of explosives. The Classification Code, consisting of the Sub-Class and Compatibility Group (e. g. 1.1D for a mass-explodable detonating explosive or an article with such a substance), characterises goods in Class 1.

Classification into a sub-class and a compatibility group lead to particular rules specified in the Dangerous Goods Regulations for transporting these goods.

, Fifth Edition Rudolf Meyer, Josef Köhler, Axel Homburg

This nitroso compound, which is related to Cyclonite, is prepared by treating hexamethylenetetramine with alkali metal nitrites in a dilute acid solution.

Since concentrated acid is not required in the preparation, large-scale manufacture of the product, under the name of R-salt, was under active consideration at one time during the Second World War. However, even though easily prepared and powerful, the explosive has not yet been used in practice owing to its limited chemical and thermal stability.

Dangerous Goods Regulations

Gefahrgutverordnungen

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Rail (GGVE)

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Road (GGVS}

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Sea (GGVSea)

Dangerous Goods Regulations, Inland Waterways (GGVBinsch)

The Dangerous Goods Regulations are internationally harmonised regulations (W ADR, W RID, W IMDG Code, W ADNR, W ICAO TI) for the transport of dangerous goods. All substances and articles that have defined explosive properties are assigned to Class 1 “Explosives and Articles with Explosive Substance”. To classify into one of the 6 Risk Classes (sub-classes of Class 1), the hazardous property of the substance or article is studied, including in its dispatch packing. This examination takes place in accordance with the test methods described in the “Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods; Manual of Tests and Criteria, United Nations”. The W BAM (Federal German Materials Testing Laboratory, W BICT for the military area) is the competent authority in Germany for classifying explosives, detonators, propellants, pyrotechnical mixtures and articles.

The purpose of the sub-classes 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 is to characterise the explosive properties of the substances and articles in Class 1 with regard to their activity and to some extent their sensitivity as well. The 13 Compatibility Groups A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, N and S reflect mainly the specific type of explosives. The Classification Code, consisting of the Sub-Class and Compatibility Group (e. g. 1.1D for a mass-explodable detonating explosive or an article with such a substance), characterises goods in Class 1.

Classification into a sub-class and a compatibility group lead to particular rules specified in the Dangerous Goods Regulations for transporting these goods.

73	Dangerous Goods Regulations

Fig. 9. Organisation of Dangerous Goods Transport.

Dautriche Method	74

Dautriche Method

A method for the determination of the detonation rate. The test sample of the explosive is accommodated in a column, which may or may not be enclosed in an iron tube; the length of the detonating column to be measured is marked out by means of two blasting caps, one at each end. A loop made of a detonating cord with a known detonation rate is connected to the caps and is passed over a lead sheet in its middle part. The cord is successively ignited at both ends, and the meeting point of the two detonation waves advancing towards each other makes a notch on the lead sheet. The distance between this meeting point and the geometric center of the cord is a measure of the reciprocal detonation rate to be determined:

Dx = D V 2am

where Dx is the detonation rate of the sample, D is the detonation rate of the detonator cord, m is the length of the distance to be measured, and a is the distance between the notch and the center of the cord length.

Fig. 10. Dautriche method.

The method is easy to carry out and no special chronometer is required.

DBX

A cast explosive charge, containing RDX, ammonium nitrate, TNT and aluminum powder in the proportions 21 : 21 : 40 : 18

75	Deflagration Point

Deckmaster

Trade name for primer charges with special delay inserts consisting of a sensor on one end and an aluminum shell delay cap on the other. Delay times: 0 – 500 milliseconds in 25 ms intervals. The Deckmasterunit has to be connected with detonating cord with no more than 30 grains per ft (W Miniaturized Detonating Cord). For varied delay steps in the hole, only one downline detonating cord is needed.

Deflagration

Explosive materials often decompose at a rate much below the sonic velocity of the material without requiring any introduction of atmospheric oxygen. This type of reaction is known as deflagration. It is propagated by the liberated heat of reaction, and the direction of flow of the reaction products is opposite to that of decomposition propagation (unlike in W Detonation). The burning of a powder or of a rocket charge is a deflagration process (W Burning Rate). The mode of reaction of an explosive material – deflagration or detonation – extent greatly depends on its mode of actuation (W To Inflame, W Initiation).

For transitions from deflagration to detonation and vice versa see p. 85.

It is important to prevent any deflagration of permitted explosives. Since the deflagration of an explosive proceeds at a much slower rate than its detonation, it may ignite methane-air and coal dust-air mixtures. This must be prevented by using suitable compositions (W Permitted Explosives) and application techniques.

Deflagration Point

Verpuffungspunkt; temp`erature de d´ecomposition

The deflagration point is defined as the temperature at which a small sample of the explosive, placed in a test tube and externally heated, bursts into flame, decomposes rapidly or detonates violently.

A 0.5-g sample (a 0.01-g sample in the case of W Initiating Explosives) is placed in a test tube and immersed in a liquid metal (preferably Wood’s metal) bath at 100 °C (212°F), and the temperature is raised at the rate of 20 °C per minute until deflagration or decomposition takes place.

This method is identical with the official method laid down in RID. Nitrocellulose and nitrocellulose powder are tested in a stirred paraffin bath, heated at the rate of 5 °C per minute.

Delay*)	76

Delay*)

Verzögerung; retard

A pyrotechnic, mechanical, electronic, or explosive train component that introduces a controlled time delay in some element of the arming or functioning of a fuze mechanism.

delay, arming*)

The time or distance interval between the instant a device carrying the fuze is launched and the instant the fuze becomes armed.

delay compositions

Verzögerungssätze; compositions retardatrices

Delay compositions are mixtures of materials which, when pressed into delay tubes, react without evolution of gaseous products and thus ensure the minimum variation in the delay period. Examples of such mixtures are potassium permanganate with antimony; lead dioxide or minium with silicium; redox reactions with fluorides and other halides (W also Coruscatives and W delay, gasless).

delay element*)

An explosive train component normally consisting of a primer, a delay column, and a relay detonator or transfer charge assembled in that order in a single housing to provide a controlled time interval.

delay function*)

The time or distance interval between the initiation of the fuze and the detonation.

delay fuze

Verzögerungszünder; fus´ee retardatrice

In the military, delay fuses are complete shell fuses which set off the explosive charge a definite time after impact.

delay, gasless*)

Verzögerung, gaslos; retard sans formation de gaz

Delay elements consisting of a pyrotechnic mixture that burns without production of gases.

delayed initiation; delayed inflammation

Zündverzug; Anzündverzug

* Text quoted from glossary.

77	Destruction of Explosive Materials

In hypergolic pairs of rocket propellants (W Hypergolic), a “delay” in inflammation is understood to mean the time which elapses from the moment of contact between the reaction partners up to the initiation; this delay is of the order of a few milliseconds, and must not exceed a certain limiting value; thus, e.g. the inflammation delay of the reagent pair furfuryl alcohol – nitric acid is about 20 milliseconds.

In the case of solid fuel rockets, the delay in inflammation, which is determined on a test stand, is understood to mean the time which elapsed between the moment of application of the initiation voltage to the electric inflammation element and the moment when about 10 % of the maximum pressure has been attained. Clearly, the magnitude of this parameter depends both on the nature of the firing charge employed and on the ease with which the solid propellant can be initiated. The permitted initiation delay will depend on the objective of the firing.

Density

Dichte; densit´

Density is an important characteristic of explosives. Raising the density (e.g. by pressing or casting) improves W Brisance and Detonation Velocity (W Detonation, Hydrodynamic Theory of Detonation). Lowdensity explosives, in contrast, produce a milder thrust effect (W also

Loading Density; W Cartridge Density).

DER 332

Abbreviation for an epoxy compound with the following structure:

empirical formula: C21H24O4 molecular weight: 340.19 density: 1.15 –1.17 g/cm3

Destruction of Explosive Materials

Vernichten von Explosivstoffen; d`estruchon de mati`eres explosives

Destruction of explosives includes destruction of explosive materials and their waste which present a danger of explosion, removal of explosive residues on machines, instruments, pipes etc., and handling objects with adhering explosives (for the evacuation and handling of

Destressing Blasting	78

ammunition W Dismantling of Explosive Objects, Especially Ammunition). The destruction of explosives must be carried out under the supervision of an expert, who must be in charge of the entire operation.

The following techniques may be used in the destruction of explosive materials:

1.Combustion: this technique is applicable to most explosives apart from initiating explosives. However, this destruction technique, while important per se, can only be carried out by the manufacturer. Burning of explosives by the user can be dangerous.

2.The explosive is poured into a large volume of water and is mixed with it. This technique can be applied to materials which are soluble totally in water (black powder, ANFO).

3.Treatment with chemicals (acids, alkalis, boiling with water): lead azide is destroyed by treatment with nitric acid in the presence of sodium nitrite; lead trinitroresorcinate by treatment with nitric acid; mercury fulminate by prolonged treatment with boiling nitric acid.

4.Exploding the material: blasting operations must be carried out in a barricaded area licensed for the purpose, located at least 1000 ft away from any bulding which may be endangered by the explosion. A reinforced shelter is needed for protection of personnel; suitable protection from flying fragments (e.g. by walls; palisades) must be provided.

Destressing Blasting*)

Entspannungssprengung; sautage de d´etente

Destressing blasting serves to loosen up the rock mass in order to distribute high compressive loads more uniformly and to counteract the hazard of rockbursts. Rockbursts are particulary violent fracture processes, accompanied by considerable earth tremors. They mainly consist of a sudden thrust or ejection of the rock involved (coal; salts; massive rocks) and abrupt closure of the excavation. In coal seams,

*The article was made available by Dr. Bräuner, Bergbauverein Essen. Publications:

Bräuner, G.: Gebirgsdruck und Gebirgsschläge. Verlag Glückauf. Essen (1981).

Bräuner, G.: Möglichkeiten der Gebirgsschlagbekämpfung im Ruhrbergbau unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Entspannungssprengens. NOBEL-Hefte July – September (1978), p. 91 – 97.

Bräuner, G.: Gebirgsdruck und Gebirgsschläge, Verlag Glückauf, Essen, 2th Edition (1991).