- •1.1. Definition
- •1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
- •1.3. Classes of nouns
- •1.3.1. Proper vs common nouns
- •1.3.2. Concrete vs abstract nouns
- •1.3.3. Countable vs uncountable nouns
- •1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
- •1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
- •1.3.6. Gender
- •1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns
- •1.4. The category of Number
- •1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation
- •1.4.2. The non-productive ways of the number formation
- •1.5. The category of Case
- •1.5.1. Common Case: the syntactic functions of nouns
- •1.5.2. Possessive case
- •1. Write down the plurals of the following nouns and check their pronunciation in a dictionary where necessary:
- •2. Define the morphological structure of the italicized nouns in the texts given below:
- •3. Make up unstable compounds out of the following word-combinations:
- •4. Use the possessive case of the noun instead of the following word-combinations:
- •5. Analyse the italicized nouns in terms of classes and categories in the following extracts:
- •6. Translate the following sentences into English:
- •2.1. Definition
- •2.2. Functions of article
- •2.3. Article and pronoun
- •2.4. Indefinite article: usage
- •2.4.1. Indefinite article before common concrete nouns
- •2.5. Definite article: usage
- •2.5.7. Definite article before common nouns
- •2.5.2. Definite article before proper nouns
- •2.5.3. Definite article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.6. Zero article: usage
- •2.6.1. Zero article before common nouns
- •2.6.2. Zero article before proper nouns
- •2.6.3. Zero article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.7. Article determination of certain noun groups
- •1. Comment on the use of the italicized articles and nouns they determine in the extracts below:
- •2. Compare and explain the use of the italicized articles and nouns they specify in the following groups of sentences:
- •3. Insert proper articles where necessary into the texts below:
- •4. Translate the following texts into English using proper articles:
- •3.1. Definition
- •3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
- •3.3. Classes of adjectives
- •3.3.1. Qualitative adjectives: the category of comparison
- •Inner — — innermost
- •3.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives
- •2. Give the opposites of the following adjectives by using the correct negative prefix:
- •3. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
- •4. Define the class of the italicized adjectives and their syntactic function in the text given below:
- •5. Insert little or a little and define which part speech they belong to:
- •10. Complete the following with far/farther/farthest, further/furthest:
- •11. Put the words in brackets into the comparative forms:
- •4.1. Definition
- •4.2. Classes of pronouns
- •4.4. Possessive pronouns
- •4.5. Reflexive pronouns
- •4.6. Reciprocal pronouns
- •4.7. Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.8. Interrogative pronouns
- •4.9. Connective pronouns
- •4.9.1. Relative pronouns
- •4.9.2. Conjunctive pronouns
- •4.10. Indefinite pronouns
- •4.11. Defining pronouns
- •4.12. Negative pronouns
- •2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:
- •3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:
- •4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:
- •11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:
- •12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:
- •13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:
- •5.1. Definition
- •5.2. Classes of numerals
- •5.3. Morphological structure of numbers
- •5.4. Usage
- •5.4.1. Numerals proper
- •5.4.2. Noun-substitutes
- •5.4.3. Substantivized numerals
- •1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:
- •2. Translate into English using cardinals:
- •3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:
- •4. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •5. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •6. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:
- •8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:
- •6.1. Definition
- •6.2. Morphological structure of verbs
- •6.3. Finite vs non-finite forms
- •6.4. Syntagmatic functioning of verbs
- •6.5. Conjugation of verbs
- •6.6. Regular vs irregular verbs
- •6.7. Classes of verbs: functions
- •6.8. Be: functions
- •6.9. Have: functions
- •6.10. Do: functions
- •6.11. Shall: Junctions
- •6.12. Will: functions
- •6.13. Should: functions
- •6.14. Would: functions
- •6.15. Modals
- •6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
- •6.15.2. Modals expressing supposition
- •6.15.3, Modals expressing ability
- •6.75.4. Modals expressine permission.__requests,
- •6.15.5. Modals expressing willingness
- •6.15.6. Semi-defective verbs: need and dare
- •I 6.16. Meaningful verbs: grammatical categories
- •6.16.2. Category of Tense
- •6.16.3. Category of Taxis
- •6.16.4. Category of Aspect
- •6.16.5. Category of Voice
- •6.16.6. Category of Person
- •6.16.7. Category of Number
- •6.16.8. Category of Negation
- •6.16.9. Category of Interrogation
- •Is often a fine month, isn't it? — It isn't cold in October,
- •Is it? Leaves turn red and gold then, don't they? — The
- •I? You will be quick, won't you?
- •6.16.10. The Category of Expressivity
- •6.16.11. The category of Representation
- •6.17.1. Participle
- •6.17.2. Gerund
- •6.17.3. Infinitive
- •2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
- •3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
- •4. Comment upon the functions of be:
- •5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:
- •6. Comment upon the functions of do in the following extracts:
- •7. Define the meaning of the italicized modals in the extracts below:
- •8. Translate into English using modals of obligation:
- •9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:
- •10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:
- •11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:
- •12. Comment upon the forms of the participle and its syntactic functions:
- •13. Comment upon the forms of the gerund and its syntactic functions:
- •14. Comment upon the forms of the infinitive and its syntactic functions:
- •75. Define the grammatical status and the syntactic function of the italicised -ing forms in the following extracts:
- •16. State the grammatical status of verbals and their syntactic function in the following extracts:
- •17. Translate into English using the Complex Subject:
- •18. Translate into English using the Complex Object:
- •7.1. Definition
- •7.2. Morphological structure of adverbs
- •7.5.7. Adverbs denoting the quality of an action
- •7.5.2. Adverbs denoting circumstances
- •7.6. Syntactic functions of adverbs
- •1. Comment on the morphological status, lexical class and syntactic function of the italicized adverbs in the sentences below:
- •2. Choose the right word and define the part of speech it belongs to:
- •3. State whether the italicized words in the sentences below are adverbs or prepositions:
- •4. State whether the italicized forms below are prepositional or phrasal verbs:
2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
a) In the 1786 Sir William Jones (a British scholar who found it best to reside in India because of his
1
sympathy for the rebellious American colonists) delivered a paper in which he observed that Sanskrit bore to Greek and Latin 'a stronger affinity ... than could possibly have been produced by accident'. Jones suggested that these three languages had 'sprung from a common source' and that probably Germanic and Celtic had the same origin. The classical philologists of the time attempted to disprove the idea that there was any genetic relationship between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek, since if such a relationship existed it would make their views on language and language development obsolete.
b) For many languages there are historical records that go back more than a thousand years. These records are studied to find out how languages were once pronounced. The spelling in early manuscripts tells us a great deal about the sound system of older forms of modern languages. If certain words are always spelled one way, and other words another way, it is logical to conclude that the two groups of words were pronounced differently, even if the precise pronunciation is not known.
c) In Tolstoy's masterpieces all is probable and typical of human life. These are the sort of things that might happen to anyone. Things like them have probably happened to thousands. These are such people as we might meet any day. We can say without reservation, This is what life is like'.
d) But we cannot help noticing that until quite modern times nearly all stories were of a different type. Just as all except bores relate in conversation not what is normal but what is exceptional, so earlier authors told of the exceptional.
e) No one knows exactly how or why languages change. Certainly linguistic changes do not happen suddenly. It is not the case that all speakers of English awoke one morning and decided to use the word beef for «ox meat». Nor is it true that all the children of one particular generation grew up to adopt this new word usage. Changes are more gradual, particularly changes in the phonological and syntactic system.
3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
a) Strictly speaking, metaphor occurs as often as we take a word out of its original sphere and apply it to new circumstances. In this sense almost all words can be shown to be metaphorical when they do not bear a physical meaning; for the original meaning of almost all words can be traced back to something physical; in our first sentence above, for instance, there are eight different metaphors. Words had to be found to express mental perceptions, abstract ideas, and complex relations, for which a primitive vocabulary did not provide; and the obvious course was to convey the new idea by means of the nearest physical parallel.
b) A chronological investigation most obviously begins with the native tongue that was brought to these islands in the fifth century by the Germanic tribes who eventually overran the native Britons. The importance of this purely Germanic basis is often overlooked, largely because of the great number of foreign words incorporated in our present-day vocabulary. But an examination of
actual usage, as opposed to mere presence in a dictionary, shows how important the native words are.
c) While Nathaniel Hawthorn was still living, he took ' a place among the greatest American authors, a position he shows no sign of losing. During the last three decades, in fact, his achievement has been valued higher than ever before. As his works have been reassessed by standards which have been revised to accord with the critical view and tastes of recent years, enthusiastic recognition has been given to the consistency of his total thought, to the balance and perception of his social outlook, to his understanding of human character, particularly the darker elements, to the mastery he displayed in the use of indefiniteness, ambiguity, and suggestion, and above all to the richness of metaphor and symbol he achieved.